Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

From Wikipedia.com

Coordinates: 33°51′35.9″S 151°12′40″E / 33.859972°S 151.21111°E / -33
859972; 151.21111

Sydney is the largest city in Australia, and the state capital of New South
Wales. Sydney has a metropolitan area population of approximately 4.34
million and an area of approximately 12,000 square kilometres. Its
inhabitants are called Sydneysiders, and Sydney is often called "the Harbour
City". It is one of the most multicultural cities in the world, reflecting
its role as a major destination for immigrants to Australia.

The site of the first British colony in Australia, Sydney was established in
1788 at Sydney Cove by Arthur Phillip, commodore of the First Fleet. The
city is built on hills surrounding Sydney Harbour – an inlet of the Tasman
Sea on Australia's south-east coast. It is home to the iconic Sydney Opera
House, Harbour Bridge and its beaches. The metropolitan area is surrounded
by national parks, and contains many bays, rivers and inlets.

The city is home to many prominent parks, such as Hyde Park, Royal Botanical
Gardens and national parks. This is a major factor, along with Sydney
Harbour that has led to the city's reputation as one of the most beautiful
in the world.

Sydney is considered an alpha+ world city, as listed by the Loughborough
University group's 2008 inventory and is ranked 16th among global cities by
Foreign Policy's 2008 Global Cities Index. According to the Mercer cost of
living survey, Sydney is Australia's most expensive city, and the 66th most
expensive in the world. Sydney also ranks among the top 10 most livable
cities in the world according to Mercer Human Resource Consulting and The
Economist. Sydney is also a significant international financial centre and
has been ranked 14th within the top 50 global financial cities as surveyed
by the Mastercard Worldwide Centers of Commerce Index (2007), and 1st within
Australia.

Sydney has hosted major international sporting events, including the 1938
British Empire Games, 2000 Summer Olympics and the final of the 2003 Rugby
World Cup. The main airport serving Sydney is Sydney Airport.

History

Radio carbon dating suggests that the Sydney region has been inhabited by
indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years. The traditional Indigenous
inhabitants of Sydney Cove are the Cadigal people, whose land once stretched
from south of Port Jackson to Petersham. While estimates of the population
numbers prior to the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788 remains contentious,
approximately 4,000–8,000 Aboriginal people lived in the Sydney region prior
to contact with British settlers. The British called the Indigenous people
the "Eora", because being asked where they came from, these people would
answer: "Eora", meaning "here", or "from this place" in their language.
There were three language groups in the Sydney region, which were divided
into dialects spoken by smaller clans. The principal languages were Darug
(the Cadigal, original inhabitants of the City of Sydney, spoke a coastal
dialect of Darug), Dharawal and Guringai. Each clan had a territory, the
location of that territory determined the resources available. Although
urbanisation has destroyed much evidence of these settlements (such as shell
middens), a number of Sydney rock engravings, carvings and rock art remain
visible in the Hawkesbury sandstone of the Sydney basin.

In 1770, British sea Captain Lieutenant James Cook landed in Botany Bay on
the Kurnell Peninsula. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an
Aboriginal community known as the Gweagal. Under instruction from the
British government, a convict settlement was founded by Arthur Phillip, who
arrived at Botany Bay with a fleet of 11 ships on 18 January 1788. This site
was soon determined to be unsuitable for habitation, owing to poor soil and
a lack of reliable fresh water. Phillip subsequently founded the colony
further up the coast, at Sydney Cove on Port Jackson on 26 January 1788. He
named it after the British Home Secretary, Thomas Townshend, Lord Sydney, in
recognition of Sydney's role in issuing the charter authorising Phillip to
establish a colony. The original name was intended to be Albion until
Phillip decided upon Sydney.

In April 1789 a disease, thought to be smallpox, killed an estimated 500 to
1000 Aboriginal people between Broken Bay and Botany Bay. There was violent
resistance to British settlement, notably by the warrior Pemulwuy in the
area around Botany Bay, and conflicts were common in the area surrounding
the Hawkesbury River. By 1820 there were only a few hundred Aborigines and
Governor Macquarie had begun initiatives to 'civilise, Christianise and
educate' the Aborigines by removing them from their clans. Macquarie's
tenure as Governor of New South Wales was a period when Sydney was improved
from its basic beginnings. Roads, bridges, wharves and public buildings were
constructed by British and Irish convicts, and by 1822 the town had banks,
markets, well-established thoroughfares and an organised constabulary. The
1830s and 1840s were periods of urban development, including the development
of the first suburbs, as the town grew rapidly when ships began arriving
from Britain and Ireland with immigrants looking to start a new life in a
new country. On 20 July 1842 the municipal council of Sydney was
incorporated and the town was declared the first city in Australia, with
John Hosking the first elected mayor. The first of several Australian gold
rushes started in 1851, and the port of Sydney has since seen many waves of
people arriving from around the world.

Rapid suburban development began in the last quarter of the 19th century
with the advent of steam powered tramways and railways. With
industrialisation Sydney expanded rapidly, and by the early 20th century it
had a population well of more than a million. The Great Depression hit
Sydney badly. One of the highlights of the Depression era, however, was the
completion of the Sydney Harbour Bridge in 1932. There has traditionally
been a rivalry between [[Sydney and Melbourne since the gold rushes of the
1850s made the capital of Victoria Australia's largest and richest city.
Sydney overtook Melbourne in population in the early years of the 20th
century, and has remained the largest city in Australia since this time.
During the 1970s and 1980s Sydney's CBD with the Reserve Bank and Australian
Stock Exchange clearly surpassed Melbourne as the nation's financial capital
Throughout the 20th century, especially in the decades immediately
following World War II, Sydney continued to expand as large numbers of
European and later Asian immigrants populated the metropolitan area.

Geography

The city centre is about a quarter of the way in on the south shore of the
upper inlet, the Parramatta River, directly south of the Sydney Harbour
Bridge

Topography

Sydney's urban area is in a coastal basin, which is bordered by the Pacific
Ocean to the East, the Blue Mountains to the West, the Hawkesbury River to
the North and the Royal National Park to the South. It lies on a submergent
coastline, where the ocean level has risen to flood deep river valleys (ria)
carved in the hawkesbury sandstone. Port Jackson, better known as Sydney
Harbour, is one such ria and is the largest natural harbour in the world.
The Sydney area is not affected by significant earthquakes.

The urban area has around 70 harbour and ocean beaches, including the famous
Bondi Beach. Sydney's urban area covers 1,687 km2 (651 sq mi) as at 2001
[28] The Sydney Statistical Division, used for census data, is the
unofficial metropolitan area [29] and covers 12,145 km2 (4,689 sq mi). This
area includes the Central Coast, the Blue Mountains, and national parks and
other unurbanised land. This makes Sydney the third largest urban
agglomeration in the world behind Brasília (14,400 km²) and Tokyo (13,500
km²).

Geographically, Sydney lies over two regions: the Cumberland Plain, a
relatively flat region lying to the south and west of the harbour, and the
Hornsby Plateau, a sandstone plateau lying mainly to the north of the
harbour and dissected by steep valleys. The parts of the city with the
oldest European development are located in the flat areas south of the
harbour. The North Shore was slower to develop because of its hilly
topography and lack of access across the harbour. The Sydney Harbour Bridge
was opened in 1932 and linked the North Shore to the rest of the city.

Urban structure

Sydney's central business district (CBD) extends southwards for about 3
kilometres (2 mi) from Sydney Cove to the area around Central station. The
Sydney CBD is bounded on the east side by a chain of parkland, and the west
by Darling Harbour, a tourist and nightlife precinct.

Although the CBD dominated the city's business and cultural life in the
early days, other business/cultural districts have developed in a radial
pattern since World War II. As a result, the proportion of white-collar jobs
located in the CBD declined from more than 60 per cent at the end of World
War II to less than 30 per cent in 2004.

Together with the commercial district of North Sydney, joined to the CBD by
the Harbour Bridge, the most significant outer business districts are
Parramatta in the central-west, Penrith in the west, Bondi Junction in the
east, Liverpool in the southwest, Chatswood to the north, and Hurstville to
the south.

The city's metropolitan area is characterised by large areas of urban sprawl
and, on the eastern side, beaches along the Tasman Sea

The extensive area covered by urban Sydney is formally divided into 642
suburbs (for addressing and postal purposes), and administered as 40 local
government areas. There is no metropolitan-wide government, but the
Government of New South Wales and its agencies have extensive
responsibilities in providing metropolitan services.

Economy of Sydney

The largest economic sectors in Sydney, as measured by the number of people
employed, include property and business services, retail, manufacturing, and
health and community services. Since the 1980s, jobs have moved from
manufacturing to the services and information sectors. Sydney provides
approximately 25 percent of the country's total GDP.
The City of Sydney, viewed from Balmain.

The Australian Securities Exchange and the Reserve Bank of Australia are
located in Sydney, as are the headquarters of 90 banks and more than half of
Australia's top companies, and the regional headquarters for around 500
multinational corporations. Of the ten largest corporations in Australia by
revenue, four have headquarters in Sydney: Caltex Australia, the
Commonwealth Bank, Westpac, and Woolworths. Of the 54 authorised
deposit-taking banks in Australia, 44 are based in Sydney including nine of
the 11 foreign subsidiary banks in Australia and all of the 29 local
branches of foreign banks. Major authorised foreign banks in Sydney include
Citigroup, UBS Australia, Mizuho Corporate Bank, HSBC Bank Australia and
Deutsche Bank.

Shopping locations in the central business district include the Queen
Victoria Building, the pedestrian mall on Pitt Street, and international
luxury boutiques in the quieter, northern end of Castlereagh St. Oxford
Street in Paddington and Crown Street, Woollahra are home to boutiques
selling more niche products, and the main streets of Newtown and Enmore
cater more towards students and alternative lifestyles.

Sydney received 7.8 million domestic visitors and 2.5 million international
visitors in 2004. In 2007, the (then) Premier of New South Wales, Morris
Iemma established Events New South Wales to "market Sydney and NSW as a
leading global events destination". Fox Studios Australia has large film
studios in the city.

The city has the highest median household income of any major city in
Australia (US$42,559 PPP). As of 2004, the unemployment rate in Sydney was 4
9 percent.[54] According to The Economist Intelligence Unit's Worldwide cost
of living survey, Sydney is the sixteenth most expensive city in the world,
while a UBS survey ranks Sydney as 15th in the world in terms of net
earnings.[55] As of 20 September 2007, Sydney has the highest median house
price of any Australian capital city at $9,000.[56] Sydney also has the
highest median rent prices of any Australian city at $450 a week.

Culture

Sydney hosts many different festivals and some of Australia's largest social
and cultural events. These include the Sydney Festival, Australia's largest
arts festival which is a celebration involving both indoor and free outdoor
performances throughout January; the Biennale of Sydney, established in 1973
the Big Day Out, a travelling rock-music festival which originated in
Sydney; the Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras along Oxford Street; the Sydney Film
Festival and many other smaller film festivals such as the short film
Tropfest and Flickerfest.

Australia's premier prize for portraiture, the Archibald Prize is organised
by the Art Gallery of New South Wales. The Sydney Royal Easter Show is held
every year at Sydney Olympic Park, the final of Australian Idol takes place
on the steps of the Opera House, and Australian Fashion Week takes place in
April/May and September. Sydney's New Years Eve and Australia Day
celebrations are the largest in Australia.

A survey based on tracking the frequency of words and phrases in the media,
cited Sydney as number 9 on a list of the world's top fashion cities in 2009
The city is the site of the world renowned Rosemount Australian Fashion
Week, which occurs biannually, and is home to many of Australia's premier
fashion houses. Most international designers have a major presence in Sydney

Entertainment and performing arts

Sydney has a wide variety of cultural institutions. Sydney's iconic Opera
House has five halls, including a large concert hall and opera and drama
theatres; it is the home of Opera Australia—the third-busiest opera company
in the world, and the Sydney Symphony. Other venues include the Sydney Town
Hall, City Recital Hall, the State Theatre, the Theatre Royal, Sydney, the
Sydney Theatre and the Wharf Theatre.

The National Institute of Dramatic Art, based in Kensington, boasts
internationally famous alumni such as Mel Gibson, Judy Davis, Baz Luhrmann
and Cate Blanchett. Sydney's role in the film industry has increased since
the opening of Fox Studios Australia in 1998.

Sydney's most popular nightspots include Kings Cross, Oxford Street, Darling
Harbour, Circular Quay and The Rocks, which all contain various bars,
nightclubs and restaurants. Star City Casino, is Sydney's only casino and is
situated around Darling Harbour. There are many traditional pubs, cafes and
restaurants in inner-city areas such as Newtown, Balmain and Leichhardt.
Sydney's main live music hubs include areas such as Newtown and Annandale,
which nurtured acts such as AC/DC, Bliss n Eso, Midnight Oil and INXS. Other
popular nightspots tend to be spread throughout the city in areas such as
Bondi, Manly, Cronulla and Parramatta.

Tourism

In the year ending March 2008, Sydney received 2.7 million international
visitors. The most well-known attractions include the Sydney Opera House and
the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Other attractions include Royal Botanical Gardens
Luna Park, some 40 beaches and Sydney Tower.

Sport and outdoor activities

Sport is an important part of Sydney's culture. The most popular sport in
Sydney is rugby league. The NSWRFL (today known as the NRL) began in Sydney
in the 1908 season and is the largest and most prestigious domestic rugby
league competition in the Southern Hemisphere.[75] The city is home to nine
of the sixteen teams currently in the National Rugby League competition: the
Canterbury Bulldogs, Cronulla Sharks, Manly Sea Eagles, Penrith Panthers,
Parramatta Eels, South Sydney Rabbitohs, St George Illawarra Dragons, Sydney
Roosters and Wests Tigers.
Fireworks during the 2000 Summer Olympics closing ceremony

Cricket is the most popular summer sport in Sydney. The Ashes Series between
Australia and England is widely popular among the people. As the state
capital, Sydney is the home of the NSW Blues cricket team in the Sheffield
Shield cricket competition. Sydney Cricket Ground and ANZ Stadium here host
cricket matches. This city has also hosted 1992 Cricket World Cup and will
also host the 2015 Cricket World Cup. Sydney Cricket Ground is at present
the only test venue in the city. Plans are going on to accommodate ANZ
Stadium as an international cricket venue for Australia.

Other events in Sydney include the start of the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race,
the Golden Slipper horse race, and the City to Surf race.

Government

Apart from the limited role of the Cumberland County Council from 1945–1964,
there has never been an overall governing body for the Sydney metropolitan
area; instead, the metropolitan area is divided into local government areas
(LGAs). These areas have elected councils which are responsible for
functions delegated to them by the New South Wales State Government, such as
planning and garbage collection.

The City of Sydney includes the central business area and some adjoining
inner suburbs, and has in recent years been expanded through amalgamation
with adjoining local government areas, such as South Sydney. It is led by
the elected Lord Mayor of Sydney and a council. The Lord Mayor, however, is
sometimes treated as a representative of the whole city, for example during
the Olympics.

Most citywide government activities are controlled by the state government. These include public transport, main roads, traffic control, policing, education above preschool level, and planning of major infrastructure projects. Because a large proportion of the New South Wales population lives in Sydney, state governments have traditionally been reluctant to allow the development of citywide governmental bodies, which would tend to rival the state government. For this reason, Sydney has always been a focus for the politics of both state and federal parliaments. For example, the boundaries of the City of Sydney LGA have been significantly altered by state governments on at least four occasions since 1945, with expected advantageous effect to the governing party in the New South Wales Parliament at the time.

Penyakit Anjing Gila (Rabies)

Dr.H.Sudradjat SB.
Penyebab dan perantara penularan.
Penyakit ini disebabkan oleh suatu virus, yaitu virus rabies yang
menyebabkan gangguan pada susunan saraf pusat (SSP).
Vektor yang berperan dalam penularan penyakit ini adalah anjing dan
binatang-binatang liar seperti kera, kelelawar dsb.
Manifestasi penyakit
Sesudah masa tunas / inkubasi selama 10 hari sampai dengan 7 bulan, orang
yang tertular dapat mengalami / menderita penyakit ini dengan gejala-gejala
sebagai berikut :
Diawali dengan demam ringan atau sedang, sakit kepala, tak nafsu makan,
lemah, mual, muntah dan perasaan yang abnormal pada daerah sekitar gigitan
(anjing/binatang liar tsb).
Gejala di atas kemudian dengan cepat diikuti hiperestesi dan hipereksitasi
mental serta neuromuskular, diikuti dengan kaku kuduk dan kejang-kejang
otot-otot yang berfungsi dalam proses menelan dan pernafasan. Sedikit
rangsangan berupa cahaya, suara, bau ataupun sedikit cairan dapat
menimbulkan reflex kejang-kejang tersebut.
Keadaan tersebut selanjutnya berkembang menjadi kekejangan umum dan
kematianpun umumnya terjadi pada tahap ini.
Pengobatan. Pengobatan dilakukan dengan memberikan imunisasi pasif dengan
serum anti rabies, dan pengobatan yang bersifat suportif dan simtomatik.
Luka gigitan dirawat dengan tehnik tertentu dengan tujuan menghilangkan dan
menonaktifkan virus. Immunisasi aktif dengan vaksin anti rabies sebelum
tanda-tanda dan gejala muncul sekaligus merupakan usaha pencegahan bila ada
kecurigaan binatang yang menggigit mengidap rabies.
Pencegahan. Pencegahan dilakukan dengan menghindari gigitan anjing atau binatang-binatang liar. Bila sudah terjadi maka binatang tersebut harus diobservasi oleh dokter hewan untuk kemungkinan rabies. Bila binatang tersebut menunjukkan tanda-tanda rabies atau bahkan mati dalam waktu 10 hari maka harus dilakukan pemeriksaan laboratorik terhadap otak binatang tersebut untuk memastikan diagnosa.

Brisbane

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Brisbane is the state capital of the Australian state of Queensland and is
the largest city in that state. With an estimated population of
approximately 2 million, it is also the third most populous city in
Australia.

The city is situated on the Brisbane River on a low-lying floodplain between
Moreton Bay and the Great Dividing Range in southeastern Queensland. The
local indigenous people knew the area as Mian-jin, meaning 'place shaped as
a spike'.

Brisbane is named after Sir Thomas Brisbane, the Governor of New South Wales
from 1821 to 1825. Brisbane's demonym is a Brisbanite.

The first European settlement in Queensland was a penal colony at Redcliffe,
28 kilometres (17 mi) north of the Brisbane central business district, in
1824. That settlement was soon abandoned and moved to North Quay in 1825.
Free settlers were permitted from 1842. Brisbane was chosen as the capital
when Queensland was proclaimed a separate colony from New South Wales in
1859.

At a municipal level, the city is governed by the Brisbane City Council. In
1925, the City of Brisbane Act was passed by the Queensland Government,
abolishing 20 local government authorities in the city and forming the
largest local authority in Australia.

The city played a central role in the Allied campaign during World War II as
the South West Pacific headquarters for General Douglas MacArthur.

Brisbane is fast becoming a world city renowned for its culture,
architecture and landscape. The metropolitan area is surrounded by many
national parks, and contains many rivers, bays and inlets. The main airport
serving Brisbane is Brisbane International Airport, located 14 km north-east
of the CBD

Brisbane has hosted many large cultural and sporting events including the
1982 Commonwealth Games, World Expo '88 and the 2001 Goodwill Games. In 2008
Brisbane was classified as a gamma world city+ in the World Cities Study
Group's inventory by Loughborough University.

History

Brisbane was inhabited before European settlement by the Turrbal people
whose ancestors migrated to the region from across the Torres Strait. They
knew the area as Mian-jin, meaning 'place shaped as a spike'.

The Moreton Bay area was initially explored by Matthew Flinders, landing and
naming "Red Cliff Point" – after the red-coloured cliffs visible from the
bay, known today as Woody Point – on 17 July 1799. In 1823, Governor of New
South Wales, Thomas Brisbane, instructed that a new northern penal
settlement be developed, and an exploration party led by John Oxley further
explored Moreton Bay.

Oxley discovered, named and sailed up the Brisbane River as far as Goodna,
some 20 km upstream from the Brisbane central business district. Oxley
recommended Red Cliff Point for the new colony, reporting that ships could
land at any tide and easily get close to the shore. The party settled in
Redcliffe on 13 September 1824, under the command of Lieutenant Henry Miller
with 14 soldiers, some with wives and children, and 29 convicts.

However, this settlement was abandoned after one year and the colony was
moved to a site on the Brisbane River now known as North Quay, 28 km south,
that offered a more reliable water supply. Chief Justice Forbes gave the new
settlement the name of Edenglassie before it was named Brisbane. Non-convict
European settlement of the Brisbane region commenced in 1838.

German missionaries settled at Zions Hill, Nundah, as early as 1837, five
years before Brisbane was officially declared a free settlement. The band
consisted of two ministers, Christopher Eipper (1813-1894) and Carl Wilhelm
Schmidt, and lay missionaries whose names were Haussmann, Johann Gottried
Wagner, Niquet, Hartenstein, Zillman, Franz, Rode, Doege and Schneider.

They were allocated 260 hectares and set about establishing the mission,
which became known as German Station. Free settlers entered the area over
the following five years and by the end of 1840 Robert Dixon began work on
the first plan of Brisbane Town in anticipation of future development.

Queensland's first Government House was completed in 1862 and is located
within the grounds of the Queensland University of Technology near the City
Botanic Gardens

Queensland was proclaimed a separate colony on 6 June 1859 with Brisbane
chosen as its capital, although it was not incorporated as a city until 1902

Over twenty small municipalities and shires were amalgamated in 1925, to
form the City of Brisbane which is governed by the Brisbane City Council.

1930 was a significant year for Brisbane as it had gained some landmarks
which would define the identity and character of the city. The Story Bridge
and Brisbane City Hall, the city's tallest buildings were both completed.
Additionally, the Shrine of Remembrance, in ANZAC Square, became Brisbane's
main war memorial.

During World War II, Brisbane became central to the Allied campaign when the
AMP Building (now called MacArthur Central) was used as the South West
Pacific headquarters for General Douglas MacArthur, chief of the Allied
Pacific forces.

MacArthur had previously rejected using the University of Queensland complex
as his HQ, as the distinctive bends in the river at St Lucia could have
aided enemy bombers. Also used as a Headquarters by the American troops
during World War II was the T & G Building.

Approximately 1,000,000 US troops passed through Australia during the war,
as the primary coordination point for the South West Pacific. In 1942
Brisbane was the site of a violent clash between visiting US military
personnel and Australian servicemen and civilians which resulted in one
death and several injuries. This incident became known colloquially as the
Battle of Brisbane.

Postwar Brisbane had developed a "big country town" stigma, an image which
the city's politicians and marketers were very keen to shake. Despite
growing steadily, Brisbane was punctuated by infrastructure problems.

The State government under Joh Bjelke-Petersen began a major program of
change and urban renewal beginning with the CBD and inner suburbs. Trams in
Brisbane were a popular mode of public transport and Brisbane and the city
became the last Australian city to completely close its tram network in 1969
The 1974 Brisbane flood was a major disaster which temporarily crippled the
city.

During this era Brisbane grew and modernised rapidly becoming a destination
of interstate migration. Some of Brisbane's much loved landmarks were lost
including the Bellevue Hotel in 1977 and Cloudland in 1982, demolished in
controversial circumstances by the infamous Deen Brothers demolition crew.
Major public works included the Riverside Expressway, the Gateway Bridge and
later the redevelopment of South Bank starting with the Queensland Art
Gallery.

Brisbane staged the successful 1982 Commonwealth Games and the 1988 World
Exposition (known locally as World Expo '88) during 1988. These events were
accompanied by a scale of public expenditure, construction and development
not previously seen in the state of Queensland.

Brisbane's population growth has exceeded the national average every year
since 1990 at an average rate of around 2.2% per year.

Geography

Brisbane is in the southeast corner of Queensland, Australia. The city is
centred along the Brisbane River, and its eastern suburbs line the shores of
Moreton Bay. The greater Brisbane region is on the coastal plain east of the
Great Dividing Range.

The city of Brisbane is hilly. The urban area, including the central
business district, are partially elevated by spurs of the Herbert Taylor
Range, such as the summit of Mount Coot-tha, reaching up to 300 metres (980
ft) and the smaller Enoggera Hill. Other prominent rises in Brisbane are
Mount Gravatt and nearby Toohey Mountain. Mount Petrie at 170 metres (560
ft) and the lower rises of Highgate Hill, Mount Ommaney, Stephens Mountain
and Whites Hill are dotted across the city.

The city is on a low-lying floodplain. Many suburban creeks criss-cross the
city, increasing the risk of flooding. The city has suffered two major
floods since colonisation, in 1893 and 1974. The 1974 Brisbane flood
occurred partly as a result of "Cyclone Wanda". Heavy rain had fallen
continuously for three weeks before the Australia Day weekend flood (26 – 27
January 1974).The flood damaged many parts of the city, especially the
suburbs of Oxley, Bulimba, Rocklea, Coorparoo, Toowong and New Farm. The
City Botanic gardens were inundated, leading to a new colony of mangroves
forming in the City Reach of the Brisbane River.

Urban Structure

The Brisbane central business district (CBD) lies in a curve of the Brisbane
river. The CBD covers only 2.2 km2 (0.8 sq mi) and is walkable.

Central streets are named after members of the royal family. Streets named
after female members (Adelaide, Alice, Ann, Charlotte, Elizabeth, Margaret,
Mary) run parallel to Queen Street and Queen Street Mall (named in honour of
Queen Victoria) and perpendicular to streets named after male members
(Albert, Edward, George, William).

The city has retained some heritage buildings dating back to 1820s, The
Windmill in Wickham Park and the Old Commissariat Store on William Street
are considered to be the oldest surviving buildings in Brisbane. Both were
built by convict labour in 1828. The Windmill was originally used for the
grinding of grain and a punishment for the convicts that manually operated
the grinding mill. The Windmill tower's other significant claim to fame,
largely ignored, is that the first television signals in the southern
hemisphere were transmitted from it by experimenters in April 1934—long
before TV commenced in most places. These experimental TV broadcasts
continued until World War II.

The Old Commissariat Store, originally used partly as a grainhouse, has also
been a hostel for immigrants and used for the storage of records. Built with
Brisbane tuff from the nearby Kangaroo Point Cliffs and sandstone from a
quarry near today's Albion Park Racecourse, it is now the home of the Royal
Historical Society of Brisbane. It contains a museum and can also be hired
for small functions.

The city has a density of 379.4 people per square kilometre, which is high
for an Australian city and comparable to that of Sydney. However like many
western cities, Brisbane sprawls into the greater metropolitan area. The
lower population density reflects the fact that most of Brisbane's housing
stock consists of detached houses.

Early legislation decreed a minimum size for residential blocks resulting in
few terrace houses being constructed in Brisbane. Recently the density of
the city and inner city neighbourhoods has increased with the construction
of apartments, with the result that the population of the central business
district has doubled over the last 5 years and closing the gap on Sydney and
Melbourne.

Brisbane has a lower inner city population density than Australia's two
largest cities, Sydney and Melbourne, although constant population growth
The high density housing that existed came in the form of miniature
Queenslander-style houses which resemble the much larger traditional styles
but are sometimes only one quarter the size. These miniature Queenslanders
are becoming scarce but can still be seen in the inner city suburbs.

Multi residence accommodations (such as apartment blocks) are relatively new
to Brisbane, with few such blocks built before 1970, other than in inner
suburbs such as New Farm. Pre-1950 housing was often built in a distinctive
architectural style known as a Queenslander, featuring timber construction
with large verandahs and high ceilings. The relatively low cost of timber in
South-East Queensland meant that until recently most residences were
constructed of timber, rather than brick or stone. Many of these houses are
elevated on stumps (also called "stilts"), that were originally timber, but
are now frequently replaced by steel or concrete.

Currently, Brisbane has only two buildings greater than 200 metres in height
The tallest is a residential tower, Aurora Tower and the second is a mixed
use tower Riparian Plaza. There is also a further three buildings over 200m
metres which are either under construction or have had construction put on
hold.

Climate

Brisbane has a humid subtropical climate (Koppen climate classification Cfa)
with hot, humid summers and dry, mild winters. From late Spring through to
early Autumn, thunderstorms are common over Brisbane, with the more severe
events accompanied by large damaging hail stones, torrential rain and
destructive winds.

The city's highest recorded temperature was 43.2 °C (110 °F) on 26 January
1940. On 19 July 2007, Brisbane's temperature fell below the freezing point
for the first time since records began, registering −0.1 °C (31.8 °F) at the
airport.

Brisbane's wettest day was 21 January 1887, when 465 millimetres (18.3 in)
of rain fell on the city, the highest maximum daily rainfall of Australia's
capital cities.

From 2006, Brisbane and surrounding temperate areas have experienced the
most severe drought in over a century, with dam levels dropping below one
quarter of their capacity. Residents have been mandated by local laws to
observe level 6 water restrictions on gardening and other outdoor water
usage. Per capita water usage is below 140 litres per day, giving Brisbane
one of the lowest per capita usages of water of any Western city in the
world.

Dust storms in Brisbane are extremely rare however on 23 September 2009, a
severe dust storm blanketed Brisbane, as well as other parts of eastern
Australia.

Governance
Brisbane City Hall houses the Museum of Brisbane and offices of the Brisbane
City Council.
Main articles: Brisbane City Council and Government of Queensland

Unlike other Australian capital cities, a large portion of the greater
metropolitan area of Brisbane is controlled by a single local government
entity, the Brisbane City Council. Since the creation of the Brisbane City
Council in 1925 the urban areas of Brisbane have expanded considerably past
the City Council boundaries. Prior to that, a far smaller area (comprising
the inner suburbs of Brisbane today) was controlled by the Brisbane
Municipal Council.

The City of Brisbane is divided into 26 wards, with each ward electing a
Councillor as their community representative. The Lord Mayor of Brisbane and
Councillors are elected every four years by popular vote, in which all
residents must participate. The current Lord Mayor of Brisbane is Campbell
Newman, who was elected to the position in March 2004 and re-elected in 2008

Brisbane City Council is the largest local government body (in terms of
population and budget) in Australia. The Council, formed by the merger of
twenty smaller councils in 1925, has jurisdiction over an area of 1,367 km2
(528 sq mi). The Council's annual budget is approximately $1.6 billion, and
it has an asset base of $13 billion.

Economy

Brisbane's economy has white-collar and blue-collar industries. White-collar
industries include information technology, financial services, higher
education and public sector administration generally concentrated in and
around the central business district and recently established office areas
in the inner suburbs.

Blue-collar industries, including petroleum refining, stevedoring, paper
milling, metalworking and QR railway workshops, tend to be located on the
lower reaches of the Brisbane River and in new industrial zones on the urban
fringe. Tourism is an important part of the Brisbane economy, both in its
own right and as a gateway to other areas of Queensland.

Since the late 1990s and early 2000s, the Queensland State Government has
been developing technology and science industries in Queensland as a whole,
and Brisbane in particular, as part of its "Smart State" initiative. The
government has invested in several biotechnology and research facilities at
several universities in Brisbane. The Institute for Molecular Bioscience at
the University of Queensland (UQ) Saint Lucia Campus is a large CSIRO and
Queensland state government initiative for research and innovation that is
currently being emulated at the Queensland University of Technology (QUT)
Campus at Kelvin Grove with the establishment of the Institute of Health and
Biomedical Innovation (IHBI).

Brisbane is one of the major business hubs in Australia. Most major
Australian companies, as well as numerous international companies, have
contact offices in Brisbane, while numerous electronics businesses have
distribution hubs in and around the city. DHL Global's Oceanic distribution
warehouse is located in Brisbane, as is Asia Pacific Aerospace's
headquarters. Home grown major companies include Suncorp-Metway Limited,
Flight Centre, Sunsuper, Orrcon, Credit Union Australia, Boeing Australia,
Donut King, Wotif.com, WebCentral, PIPE Networks, Krome Studios, NetBox Blue
Mincom Limited and Virgin Blue.

Brisbane has the fourth highest median household income of the Australian
capital cities at $40,973.

Port of Brisbane

The Port of Brisbane is on the lower reaches of the Brisbane River and on
Fisherman's Island at the rivers mouth, and is the 3rd most important port
in Australia for value of goods. Container freight, sugar, grain, coal and
bulk liquids are the major exports. Most of the port facilities are less
than three decades old and some are built on reclaimed mangroves and
wetlands.

The Port is a part of the Australia TradeCoast, the country's
fastest-growing economic development area. Geographically, Australia
TradeCoast occupies a large swathe of land around the airport and port.
Commercially, the area has attracted a mix of companies from throughout the
Asia Pacific region.

Retail

Brisbane has a range of retail precincts, both in the Central Business
District and in surrounding suburbs. The Queen Street Mall has a vast array
of cafes, restaurants, cinemas, gift shops and shopping centres including:
Wintergarden, Broadway on the Mall, QueensPlaza, Brisbane Arcade, Queen
Adelaide Building, Tattersails Arcade and The Myer Centre.

The majority of retail business is done within the suburbs of Brisbane in
shopping centres which include major department store chains. There are 3
major Westfield shopping centres in Brisbane located in the suburbs of
Chermside (Westfield Chermside), Mt Gravatt (Westfield Garden City) and
Carindale (Westfield Carindale).

Other large shopping centres exist at Indooroopilly (Indooroopilly Shopping
Centre), Toombul (Centro Toombul) and Mitchelton (Brookside Shopping Centre)
Other major shopping centres through-out the metropolitan area include
North Lakes (Westfield North Lakes), Strathpine (Westfield Strathpine) and
Loganholme (Logan Hyperdome).

The 2006 census reported 1,763,131 residents within the Brisbane Statistical
Division, making it the third largest city in Australia. Brisbane recorded
the largest growth rate of all capital cities in the last Census, with an
annual growth rate of 2.2%. The median age across the city was 35 years.

The 2006 census showed that 1.7% of Brisbane's population were of indigenous
origin and 21.7% were born overseas. Of those born outside of Australia, the
three main countries of birth were New Zealand, South Africa, and the United
Kingdom.

Approximately 16.1% of households spoke a language other than English, with
the most common languages being Mandarin 1.1%, Vietnamese 0.9%, Cantonese 0
9%, Italian 0.6% and Samoan 0.5%. Areas of significant overseas populations
were in the southern region of Moorooka where those of African descent
reside. Most of the Vietnamese population reside in the suburb of Inala
while those from Mainland China are often found not in one particular area
but all around Brisbane. Sunnybank is where most of the majority of the
Chinese population reside, comprising mainly of people from Taiwan and Hong
Kong. Brisbane has the highest population of Republic of China (Taiwan)
citizens in Australia. It has been estimated that the population has grown
to an estimated 35 000+, making them the highest Asian population in
Brisbane. Consequently, Sunnybank and its surrounding suburbs have often
been dubbed as the 'Real Chinatown' and 'Taiwan Town'.

The inner southern suburbs were considered the most densely populated areas
of Southern European descent, primarily Greek and Italian. There are also a
major number of Bosnians, Croatians, Indians, Pakistanis, South Africans and
Fijians in the city.

Sister Cities

Brisbane has sister city relations with the following cities

* Japan Kobe, Japan (1985)
* New Zealand Auckland, New Zealand (1988)
* People's Republic of China Shenzhen, China (1992)
* Indonesia Semarang, Indonesia (1993)
* Republic of China Kaohsiung, Taiwan (1997)
* South Korea Daejon, Republic of Korea (2002)
* People's Republic of China Chongqing, China (2005)
* United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi, UAE (2009)
* United States Brisbane, California, USA

Justifikasi Kapitalis Atas System Bunga dan Kritik Terhadapnya

Banyak anggota masyarakat saat ini bertanya-tanya mengapa suku bunga acuan
Bank Indonesia atau BI rate sudah turun sampai dengan level 6,5% tidak
dibarengi dengan turunnya suku bunga pinjaman bank. Suku bunga pinjaman pada
Agustus 2009 masih berkisar pada level 14%. Para ahli ekonomi nasional
mencoba menjelaskan dengan berbagai analisisnya mengapa bisa terjadi seperti
itu, ada ekonom yang mengatakan hal itu disebabkan karena kebijakan
penurunan BI rate bertubrukan dengan kebijakan Menteri Keuangan yang
menerbitkan surat utang dengan tingkal imbal hasil atau yield sampai 13%.
Dan ada juga ekonom yang mengatakan hal tsb karena terhambatnya laju
pertumbuhan suplay uang ke system ekonomi kita, sehingga di tengah
permintaan uang naik tapi suplai uang yang berkurang menyebabkan suku bunga
pinjaman sulit untuk turun.

Apapun jawaban analisis para ekonom nasional tsb semuanya dibenarkan oleh
ahli keuangan dan perbankan dari Columbia Univesity , Prof.Frederic S
Mishkin. Dalam bukunya yang berjudul " The Economics of Money, Banking and
Financial Markets " pada Bab tentang Perilaku Suku Bunga , Ia menjelaskan
bahwa suku bunga dipengaruhi oleh penawaran dan permintaan obligasi
negara/swasta dan juga dipengaruhi oleh penawaran dan permintaan uang dalam
system perekonomian. Ia juga mengakui bahwa tingkat suku bunga sangat
berfluktuasi tajam dan sangat sulit diprediksikan kapan naik dan turunnya,
seringkali para ahli yang paling top sekalipun meleset dalam meramal tingkat
suku bunga.

Tingginya tingkat volatilitas suku bunga tsb mengakibatkan tingginya tingkat
ketidakpastian dalam finansial market sehingga mendorong para pemberi
pinjaman dan peminjam uang meninggalkan sector riil , uang hanya beputar
dari satu instrument finansial ke instrument lainnya tanpa pernah
bersinggungan dengan aktivitas produktif. Keadaan ini membuat finansial
market semakin aktif dan memanas yang merupakan salah satu penyebab
ketidakstabilan ekonomi.

Dengan melihat kondisi seperti itu sebenarnya sudah cukup mematahkan
justifikasi kalangan kapitalis bagi bunga yang dibebankan oleh kreditor
kepada debitor dengan menginterprestasikannya sebagai hak modal atas
sebagian profit yang dituai debitor berkat uang yang dipinjamnya, karena
pada kenyataannya debitor banyak yang memakai uang pinjamannya bukan untuk
aktivitas produktif (sector rill) seperti perniagaan barang dan jasa tapi
untuk memutarkan uang tsb pada sector yang berbau spekulatif seperti untuk
mengambil keuntungan pada instrument finansial market.

Kita tentu masih ingat, pada waktu MUI pada tahun 2003 mengeluarkan fatwa
bunga bank haram, banyak kalangan intelektual termasuk sebagian ulama yang
menentang fatwa MUI tsb dengan menjustifikasi atas bunga yang dibebankan
oleh kreditor kepada debitor merupakan hak modal atas sebagian profit yang
dituai debitor berkat uang yang dipinjamnya. Sehingga masyarakat muslim
Indonesia banyak yang percaya kalau system bunga kapitalis adalah tidaklah
haram dengan tetap menyimpan uangnya di bank yang memakai system bunga.
Inilah yang merupakan salah satu yang menghambat dalam perkembangan bank
syariah nasional sekarang ini, yaitu pola fikir masyarakat muslim Indonesia
yang tidak tepat dalam memandang system bunga kapitalis.

Dalam Islam, bukannya tidak mengakui hak modal atas sebagian profit yang
dituai debitor tapi caranya adalah dengan system profit sharing (bagi hasil)
atau yang disebut dengan persekutuan mudharabah., dimana pemilik modal
(penabung/deposan) hanya akan mendapatkan keuntungan bila bank memang
mendapatkan keuntungan dari sector riil. Ini berbeda dengan mengakui hak
modal dengan system bunga kapitalis yang menggaransi pendapatan bagi pemilik
modal (penabung/deposan) tanpa melihat hasil yang dicapai oleh bank dalam
menyalurkan pembiayaan (kredit).

Sebagai penutup tulisan artikel saya ini, saya ingin menegaskan sekali lagi
bahwa sebenarnya banyak sekali justifikasi kalangan kapitalis atas bunga.
Namun yang paling kuat yang mampu meyakinkan masyarakat muslim di Indonesia
system bunga tidaklah haram, adalah justifikasi kalangan kapitalis atas
bunga yang dibebankan oleh kreditor kepada debitor merupakan interprestasi
sebagai hak modal atas sebagian profit yang dituai debitor berkat uang yang
dipinjamnya. Padahal pada kenyataannya debitor banyak yang memakai uang
pinjamannya bukan untuk aktivitas produktif (sector rill) seperti perniagaan
barang dan jasa tapi untuk memutarkan uang tsb pada sector yang berbau
spekulatif seperti untuk mengambil keuntungan pada instrument finansial
market.

Untuk mendorong kemajuan ekonomi bangsa dengan menggerakkan sector riil
bukanlah dengan system bunga tapi dengan system bagi hasil (profit sharing)
karena system bagi hasil pada bank syariah mengharuskannya adanya sector
riil yang dibiayai (underlying assetnya).

Ya Allah Maha Suci Engkau tidak ada ilmu pada diriku kecuali yang telah
Engkau Ajarkan kepadaku sesungguhnya Engkau Maha Mendengar dan Maha
Mengetahi.

Salam
Al-Faqir

Alihozi http://alihozi77.blogspot.com
Bagi yang ingin mengajukan KPR BMI bisa menghubungi Ali Hp:0813-882-364-05 atau email ali.hozi@yahoo.co.id

Cairns, Queensland, Australia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Population : 122,731 (2006)[1] (14th)
Density : 250.9/km² (649.8/sq mi) [1]
Established : 1876
Coordinates : 16°55′32″S 145°46′31″E / 16.92556°S 145
77528°E / -16.92556; 145.77528
Area: 488.1 km² (188.5 sq mi) [2]
Time zone: AEST (UTC+10)
Location:

* 1707 km (1,061 mi) NW of Brisbane
* 2420 km (1,504 mi) NNW of Sydney


Cairns is a regional city in Far North Queensland, Australia. The city
itself was named after William Wellington Cairns (the then Governor of
Queensland). It was formed to serve miners heading for the Hodgkinson River
goldfield, but experienced a decline when an easier route was discovered
from Port Douglas. It later developed into a railhead and major port for
exporting sugar cane, gold, metals, minerals and agricultural products from
surrounding coastal areas and the Atherton Tableland region.

The city is rapidly expanding, with a population of 122,731 at the 2006
census. Tourism is the largest income producer for the region, followed
closely by the sugar industry.

Cairns is located about 1,700 km (1,056 mi) from Brisbane, and about 2,420
km (1,504 mi) from Sydney by road. It is a popular travel destination for
foreign tourists because of its tropical climate and proximity to many
attractions. The Great Barrier Reef can be reached in less than an hour by
boat. Daintree National Park and Cape Tribulation, about 130 km (81 mi)
north of Cairns, are popular areas for experiencing a tropical rainforest.
It is also a starting point for people wanting to explore Cooktown, Cape
York Peninsula, and the Atherton Tableland.

The city has used its natural surroundings to its advantage, with the
construction of several small theme parks for tourists. Among them are
Rainforestation Nature Park, Tjapukai Aboriginal Cultural Park, and Kuranda
Skyrail Rainforest Cableway, which extends for 7.5 km (4.7 mi) over World
Heritage rainforest.

A notable feature of the Cairns esplanade is a swimming lagoon with
adjoining barbecue areas. In May 2003, the then Cairns Mayor Kevin Byrne
declared that topless sunbaking is permitted here, as the area is a
gathering point for people from around the world who may wish to do so. A
boardwalk allows pedestrians and cyclists to move along the foreshore from
the lagoon in a sustainable manner.

Geography

Cairns is located on the east coast of Cape York Peninsula on a coastal
strip between the Coral Sea and the Great Dividing Range. The northern part
of the city is located on Trinity Bay and the city centre is located on
Trinity Inlet. Some of the city's suburbs are located on flood plains. The
Mulgrave River and Barron River flow within the city's boundary but not
through the city itself. The city centre's foreshore is located on a mud
flat.

Cairns is a provincial city, with a linear urban layout that runs from the
south, at Edmonton, to the north, at Ellis Beach. The city is approximately
52 km (32 mi) from north to south. Cairns has experienced recent urban
sprawl, with suburbs occupying land previously used for sugar cane farming.

The Northern Beaches consist of a number of beach communities extending
north along the coast. In general, each beach suburb is located at the end
of a spur road extending from the Captain Cook Highway. From south to north,
these are Machans Beach, Holloways Beach, Yorkeys Knob, Trinity Park,
Trinity Beach, Kewarra Beach, Clifton Beach, Palm Cove, and Ellis Beach.

The suburb of Smithfield is located inland against the mountains of the
Great Dividing Range, between Yorkeys Knob and Trinity Park. It serves as
the main hub for the Northern Beaches, with a modern shopping arcade, called
Smithfield Shopping Centre.

Located south of Smithfield and inland from the Northern Beaches along the
edge of the Barron River flood plain are the suburbs of Caravonica,
Kamerunga, Freshwater, and Stratford. This area is sometimes referred to as
Freshwater Valley, though it is actually the lower part of Redlynch Valley;
further up the valley are the suburbs of Redlynch, on the western side of
Redlynch Valley, and Brinsmead on the eastern side. Stratford, Freshwater,
and Brinsmead are separated from Cairns city by Mount Whitfield (elevation
365 m (1,198 ft)) and Whitfield Range. Crystal Cascades and Copperlode Dam
are also located behind this range. This area is serviced by the Redlynch
Central Shopping Centre, a relatively new shopping centre, located in the
fast growing area of the Redlynch Valley. This shopping centre is also due
to be expanded in the future.

The city centre of Cairns is adjacent to the suburbs of Cairns North, and
Parramatta Park, Bungalow, Portsmith, and in close proximity to Westcourt,
Manunda, Manoora, Edge Hill, Whitfield, Kanimbla, Mooroobool, Earlville,
Woree and Bayview Heights. The small suburb of Aeroglen is pressed between
Mount Whitfield and the airport, on the Captain Cook Highway between Cairns
North and Stratford.

Southside Cairns, situated in a narrow area between Trinity Inlet to the
east and Lamb Range to the west, includes the suburbs of White Rock, Mount
Sheridan, Bentley Park and Edmonton. The townships of Goldsborough, Little
Mulgrave, and Aloomba are in close proximity to Gordonvale, located on the
Mulgrave River. This area is serviced by the Bruce Highway, which is to be
developed into a motorway between Woree and Gordonvale to address increasing
traffic congestion.

Nearby localities

Several other small towns and communities within Cairns' jurisdiction are
sparsely located along the Bruce highway, the furthest being Mirriwinni, 66
kilometres (41.0 mi) south of Cairns city; the largest of these townships is
Babinda, about 60 kilometres (37.3 mi) from Cairns.

The town of Kuranda is located upstream on the Barron River on the western
side of the Macalister Range, part of the Great Dividing Range. Kuranda is
located in the Tablelands local government area and, due to the geography of
the Macalister Range, is not part of the Cairns urban area; however, it
forms part of the Cairns economic catchment.

History of Cairns, Queensland

The land originally belonged to the Walubarra Yidinji people, who still
recognise indigenous property rights in the area. The area upon which the
city has been built is known in the local Yidiny language as Gimuy.

In 1770, James Cook first mapped the future site of Cairns, naming it
Trinity Bay. Closer investigation by several official expeditions 100 years
later established its potential for development into a port.

Cairns was founded in 1876, hastened by the need to export gold discovered
on the tablelands to the west of the inlet. The site was predominantly
mangrove swamps and sand ridges. The swamps were gradually cleared by
laborers, and the sand ridges were filled in with dried mud, sawdust from
local sawmills, and ballast from a quarry at Edge Hill. Debris collected
from the construction of a railway to Herberton on the Atherton Tableland, a
project which started in 1886, was also used. The railway opened up land
that was later used for agriculture on the lowlands (sugar cane, corn, rice,
bananas, pineapples), and for fruit and dairy production on the Tableland.
The success of local agriculture helped Cairns to establish itself as a port
and the creation of a harbour board in 1906 helped to support its economic
future.

During World War II, Cairns was used by the Allied Forces as a staging base
for operations in the Pacific. After World War II, Cairns slowly reinvented
itself as a centre for tourism. The opening of the Cairns International
Airport in 1984, and the building of the Cairns Convention Centre
established the city's overseas reputation as a desirable destination for
the tourism and business conference markets.

Climate

Cairns experiences a warm tropical climate, specifically a Tropical monsoon
climate (Am) under the Köppen climate classification. A wet season with
tropical monsoons runs from December to April, with a relatively dry season
from May to November, though showers are frequent for most of this period.
Mean rainfall of Cairns is 1,992.8 millimetres (78.5 in). The township of
Babinda at the southern end of the city is one of Australia's wettest towns,
recording an annual rainfall of over 4,200 millimetres (165.4 in). It has
hot, humid summers and milder temperatures in winter. Mean temperatures vary
from 25.7 °C (78.3 °F) in July to 31.4 °C (88.5 °F) in January. Monsoonal
activity during the wet season occasionally causes major flooding of the
Barron and Mulgrave Rivers, cutting off road and rail access to the city.

Tropical cyclones

Like most of North and Far North Queensland, Cairns is prone to tropical
cyclones, usually forming between November and May.

Notable cyclones that have affected the Cairns region include:

* Cyclone Larry, 2006
* Cyclone Abigail, 2001
* Cyclone Steve, 2000
* Cyclone Rona, 1999
* Cyclone Justin, 1997

Cyclone Larry

Tropical Cyclone Larry struck areas to the south of Cairns at 7 a.m. on 20
March 2006. Cyclone Larry crossed land near the town of Innisfail, 100 km
(62 mi) south of Cairns as a category five cyclone. It was downgraded to a
category four cyclone shortly before midday, and further downgraded to a
category three cyclone a few hours later. Wind gusts of up to 300 km/h (186
mph) were recorded around the Cairns region, with wind gusts up to 180 km/h
(112 mph) reported in the city. It is estimated that about one in four
houses in Cairns and surrounding areas were affected by Cyclone Larry
[citation needed]

Governance

Cairns is part of the Cairns Region local government area which is governed
by a Regional Council. The Council consists of a directly elected mayor and
10 councillors, elected from 10 single-member divisions (or wards) using an
optional preferential voting system. Elections are held every four years.

The Cairns Region consists of three former local government areas. The first
was the original City of Cairns, consisting of the Cairns City region as
listed above. The second, which was amalgamated in 1995, was the Shire of
Mulgrave (comprising the other areas, namely the Northern Beaches, Redlynch
Valley and Southside). The town of Gordonvale was once called Mulgrave. The
third area is the Shire of Douglas, which amalgamated in 2008 during major
statewide local government reforms.

At the time of the 1995 amalgamation, Cairns City had a population of
approximately 40,000 and Mulgrave Shire had a population of approximately 60
000. Both local government authorities had chambers in the Cairns CBD. The
old Cairns City Council chambers has been converted into a new city library.
In a controversial decision, new Council chambers were constructed on
previously contaminated land in the mainly industrial suburb of Portsmith.

Cairns has three representatives in the Queensland Parliament, from the
electoral districts of Barron River, Cairns and Mulgrave. The city is
represented in the Federal Parliament by representatives elected from the
districts of Leichhardt and Kennedy.

Prior to the abolition of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Commission (ATSIC), the indigenous people in Cairns were represented by the
Cairns and District Regional Council. The Council had twelve Councillors,
who elected a chairperson from among them. The Cairns area was represented
on ATSIC by the Commissioner for Queensland North Zone. The last
Commissioner for Queensland North was Lionel Quartermaine, who also served
as ATSIC's Deputy Chair.

Economy

Cairns serves as the major commercial centre for the Far North Queensland
and Cape York Peninsula Regions. It is a base for the regional offices of
various government departments.

Tourism

Tourism plays a major part in the Cairns economy. According to Tourism
Australia, the Cairns region is the fourth-most popular destination for
international tourists in Australia after Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane.
While the city does not rank amongst Australia's top 10 destinations for
domestic tourism, it attracts a significant number of Australian holiday
makers given its distance from major capitals. The city's proximity to the
Great Barrier Reef, the Wet Tropics of Queensland, and the Atherton
Tableland makes it a popular destination. The city contains hundreds of
hotels, resorts, motels and backpackers hostels. Activities in the region
include golf, white water rafting, cruises to the Great Barrier Reef, and
coach tours to the Daintree Rainforest, Atherton Tableland and Paronella
Park. There are also scenic flights, day trips to Kuranda, crocodile farms,
and a food-and-wine tour visiting tropical fruit wineries.

Commercial

Several shopping centres of various sizes are located throughout Cairns. The
largest of these are Cairns Central shopping centre, located in the central
business district, and Stockland Cairns, located in the suburb of Earlville.
In Westcourt, one of the city's oldest shopping centres has been refurbished
with the city's first Direct Factory Outlet. To service the needs of
suburbs further from the city centre, shopping complexes are also located at
Mount Sheridan, Redlynch, Smithfield, and Clifton Beach.

The city is becoming a significant economical centre in not just tourism,
but in services as well, with many new office towers being built and planned
for the near future, including the Cairns Corporate Tower #2.

Media

The Cairns Post is a daily newspaper published in the city; a weekly paper,
The Cairns Sun, is also published. The Courier-Mail is a daily
Queensland-wide newspaper published in Brisbane. The Australian newspaper
also circulates widely.

The Cairns Bulletin (cairnsbulletin.com.au) is the only independent suburban
newspaper in circulation in Cairns. It is distributed from Palm Cove in the
north to Gordonvale in the south.

Cairns is served by regional affiliates of the three Australian commercial
television networks (Ten, Nine and Seven) and the two public broadcasters
(ABC and SBS). Austar Limited provides subscription satellite television
services.

Cairns radio stations include a number of public, commercial and community
broadcasters. The ABC broadcasts ABC Radio National, ABC Local, ABC Classic
FM and the Triple J youth network. Commercial radio stations include 4CA-FM,
AM846, HOT FM, SeaFM, 4CCR-FM, 87.6 XFM, 98.7FM, 101.9 Coast FM, and 104.3
4TAB sports radio.

Industry and agriculture

The land around Cairns is still used for sugar cane farming, although this
land is increasingly under pressure from new suburbs as the city grows.
Within the Cairns City Council area, sugar mills operate in Gordonvale and
Babinda.

The Barron Gorge Hydroelectric Power Station is located nearby in Kuranda,
and provides green power for some of the city's needs.

Transport

Cairns is an important transport hub in the Far North Queensland region.
Located at the base of Cape York Peninsula, it provides important transport
links between the Peninsula and Gulf of Carpentaria regions, and the areas
to the south of the state. Cairns International Airport is essential to the
viability of the area's tourism industry.

Roads

The Bruce Highway runs for 1,700 km (1,056 mi) from Brisbane, and terminates
in the Cairns CBD, from which the Captain Cook Highway (also referred to as
the Cook Highway) commences, which runs for approximately 76 km (47 mi) from
Cairns to Mossman to the northwest.

A need for future upgrades to the Bruce Highway to motorway standards
through the southern suburbs to Gordonvale has been identified in regional
planning strategies to cope with increasing congestion from rapid population
growth. This will result in overpasses at all major intersections from Woree
to Gordonvale. The motorway will divert from Bentley Park to Gordonvale,
bypassing Edmonton to reduce the affects of road noise on residential areas.

The Kennedy Highway commences at Smithfield on the Barron River flood plain
north of Cairns, and ascends the Macalister Range to the township of Kuranda
The highway then extends to the town of Mareeba on the Atherton Tableland,
and continues to communities of Cape York Peninsula. There are plans to
construct an overpass as part of the Kennedy Range Motorway, which will run
from Smithfield to Kuranda.

The Gillies Highway commences at the township of Gordonvale, and ascends the
Gillies Range (part of the Great Dividing Range) to the town of Atherton on
the Atherton Tableland, passing through the township of Yungaburra on the
way.

The controversial private road, Quaid Road, was constructed in 1989 through
what is now a Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, and links Wangetti, on the
coast just north of Cairns, to Southedge, just south of Mount Molloy. The
road is not open to the public and is not used for general traffic.
[edit] Coaches

Cairns is served by long-distance coaches to Brisbane, and regional cities
to the south. Coaches also operate west to Mount Isa via Townsville, and to
Alice Springs and Darwin in the Northern Territory. The longest running
locally owned Coach company is Tropic Wings Coach Tours, originally
established in 1981 and opperated under the name of "Blue Wings Coaches"
changing to "Tropic Wings Coach Tours" in 1984. Tropic Wings Coach Tours was
the first local company to service Kuranda on a regular basis and has
continued to service North Queensland to this day.

Public transport

A public transport network is operated throughout the city by Marlin Coast
Sunbus. A transit mall is located in the CBD, through which all services
operate. Services include most parts of the city, from Palm Cove in the
north, to Gordonvale in the south. Bus services operated by Whitecar Coaches
run to Kuranda and to the Atherton Tableland. A smaller minibus service, Jon
s Kuranda Bus runs between Cairns and Kuranda. Cairns also has one major
taxi company, Black and White Cabs, which services the Cairns region.

Rail

Cairns is the terminus for Queensland's North Coast railway line, which
follows the eastern seaboard from Brisbane. Services are operated by
Queensland Rail (QR). In April 2009, the high speed tilt train service from
Brisbane to Cairns was suspended due to safety concerns but resumed service
on 4 May. Freight trains also operate along the route, with a QR Freight
handling facility located at Portsmith.

Pacific National Queensland (a division of Pacific National, owned by
Asciano Limited) operates a rail siding at Woree. It runs private trains on
the rail network owned by the Queensland State Government and managed by QR
s Network Division.

The Kuranda Scenic Railway operates from Cairns. The tourist railway ascends
the Macalister Range and is not used for commuter services. It passes
through the suburbs of Stratford, Freshwater (stopping at Freshwater
Station) and Redlynch before reaching Kuranda.

Freight services to Forsayth were discontinued in the mid-1990s. These were
mixed freight and passenger services that served the semi-remote towns west
of the Great Dividing Range. There is now a weekly passenger-only service,
The Savannahlander, that leaves Cairns on Wednesday mornings. The
Savannahlander is run by a private company, Cairns Kuranda Steam Trains.

Cairns is served by a narrow gauge cane railway (or cane train) network that
hauls harvested sugar cane to the Mulgrave Mill located in Gordonvale. The
pressure of urban sprawl on land previously cultivated by cane farmers has
seen this network reduced over recent years. There has been discussion that
these railway corridors may be used for a possible future light rail mass
transit system, however no plans have been drawn up.[citation needed]

The use of the existing heavy rail line for commuter services between
Redlynch and Gordonvale is occasionally discussed; however this is not a
favoured option under the FNQ 2010 Regional Plan, which recommends the use
of buses.

Cairns International Airport

Cairns International Airport is located 7 km (4 mi) north of Cairns City
between the CBD and the Northern Beaches. It is Australia's seventh busiest
domestic airport and sixth busiest international airport. In 2005/2006 there
were 3.76 million international and domestic passenger movements.

The airport has a domestic terminal, a separate international terminal, and
a general aviation area. The airport handles international flights, and
flights to major Australian cities, tourist destinations, and regional
destinations throughout North Queensland. It is an important base for
general aviation serving the Cape York Peninsula and Gulf of Carpentaria
communities. The Cairns airport is also a base for the Royal Flying Doctor
Service.

Sea port

The Cairns Seaport, located on Trinity Inlet, is operated by the Cairns Port
Authority. It serves as an important port for tourist operators providing
daily reef trips. These consist of large catamarans capable of carrying over
300 passengers, as well as smaller operators that may take as few as 12
tourists. Cairns Port is also a port of call for cruise ships, such as
Captain Cook Cruises, cruising the South Pacific Ocean. It also provides
freight services to coastal townships on Cape York Peninsula, the Torres
Strait and the Gulf of Carpentaria.

Yearly cargo through the port totals 1.13 million tonnes. Almost 90% of the
trade is bulk cargoes including petroleum, sugar, molasses, fertiliser and
LP gas. A large number of fishing trawlers are also located at the port.
There is also a marina that houses private yachts and boats used for tourist
operations.

The Royal Australian Navy has a base in Cairns (HMAS Cairns). The base has a
complement of 900 personnel, and supports fourteen warships, including the
four Armidale class patrol boats of Ardent Division, four of the six
Balikpapan class landing craft, and all six ships of the Royal Australian
Navy Hydrographic Service.

The Trinity Wharf has recently been the subject of a major redevelopment to
improve the area for tourist and cruise ship operations. The freight wharves
are located to the south of Trinity Wharf further up Trinity Inlet.

Sister cities

* Papua New Guinea Lae, Papua New Guinea (Morobe Province) since 1984
* Japan Minami, Japan (Tokushima Prefecture) since 1969
* Japan Oyama, Japan (Tochigi Prefecture) since June 15, 2006
* Latvia Riga, Latvia since 1990[24]
* United States Scottsdale, Arizona (USA) since 1987
* Canada Sidney, British Columbia (Canada) since 1984
* People's Republic of China Zhanjiang, People's Republic of China
(Guangdong province) since 2004

Education

Cairns has numerous primary and secondary schools. Separate systems of
private and public schools operate in Queensland. There are 20 state primary
schools and 16 state high schools operated by the Queensland state
government Department of Education within the Cairns City Council area,
including 6 schools in the predominantly rural areas south of Gordonvale.

Roman Catholic schools are operated by Catholic Education Cairns. The Roman
Catholic system encompasses nineteen primary schools, six secondary colleges
and one P-12 college. There are almost 6,000 primary students and 3,250
secondary students enrolled in the Roman Catholic school system.

The Cairns Campus of James Cook University is located at Smithfield. The
city is also home to a TAFE college, and a School of the Air base, both
located in the inner suburb of Manunda.

Health

The Cairns Base Hospital is situated on the Cairns Esplanade and is the
major hospital for the Cape York Peninsula Region. The smaller Cairns
Private Hospital is located nearby. On the north side of the Base hospital
is located the Australian Red Cross Blood Service

Cairns is a base for the Royal Flying Doctor Service, which operates clinics
and provides emergency evacuations in remote communities throughout the
region.

Sport and recreation

Notable sporting grounds include Barlow Park, Cairns Showground and Cazaly's
Stadium, the Cairns Convention Centre (basketball), and the Cairns Hockey
Centre.

Cairns also has a National Basketball League (NBL) team, the Cairns Taipans.
The Skill360 Australia Northern Pride Queensland Cup rugby league team
played their first season in 2008, and act as a feeder team to the North
Queensland Cowboys who play in the National Rugby League. There is also a
growing base for Rugby Union in Cairns. In Cairns Australian rules football
is followed, and there is an active local league.

Cairns is a major international destination for scuba diving due to its close proximity to the Great Barrier Reef. Other recreational activities popular with tourists include whitewater rafting, skydiving, kitesurfing and snorkelling.

Port Vila

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Coordinates: 17°45′S 168°18′E / 17.75°S 168.3°E / -17.75; 168.3
Country Vanuatu
Province Shefa Province
Port Vila is the capital and largest city of Vanuatu. Situated on the south
coast of the island of Efate, in Shefa Province, the city population at last
census (1999) was 29,356, an increase of 55% on the previous census result
(1989). This suggests a 2007 population of about 40,000 or around 65% of the
province's population. Port Vila is the economic and commercial centre of
Vanuatu.
History
The area occupied by Port Vila has been inhabited by Melanesian people for
thousands of years. In 1606, the first Europeans arrived at the island, led
by Pedro Fernández de Quirós and Luis Váez de Torres. In the 19th century,
French settlers established the municipality of Franceville, which declared
independence in 1889 and became the first self-governing nation to practice
universal suffrage without distinction of sex or race. Although the
population at the time consisted of about 500 native islanders and less than
50 whites, only the latter were permitted to hold office. One of the elected
presidents was a U.S. citizen by birth, R.D. Polk.
After 1887, the territory was jointly administered by the French and the
British. This was formalized in 1906 as an Anglo-French Condominium. During
World War II, Port Vila was an American and Australian airbase. In 1987, a
cyclone severely damaged the city. Another powerful earthquake in January
2002 caused extensive damage in the capital and surrounding areas.
Economy
Port Vila is Vanuatu's most important harbour and the centre of the country
s trade. The international airport, Bauerfield International (VLI) is also
located in the city.
Major industries in the city remain agriculture and fishing. Tourism is also
becoming important, especially from Australia and New Zealand. There were
over 50,000 visitors in 1997.
Vanuatu is a tax haven, and offshore financing in Port Vila is an important
part of the economy.
Vanuatu is still dependent on foreign aid, most of which comes from
Australia and New Zealand, although in recent years aid has also come from
the People's Republic of China. Examples of aid have been New Zealand paying
to train doctors selected from the local community, then paying part of
their wages during the first year after qualification. Australia has paid
consultants to work in Port Vila Central Hospital.
35.7% of exports leave from Port Vila and 86.9% of imports arrive in Port
Vila.
Demographics
The population is around 38,000; predominately Melanesian, with small
Polynesian, Asian, Australian and European populations, mainly French and
British.
Language
Bislama is spoken by everyone as the day-to-day language. In addition,
English and French are also widespread. Other Indigenous languages are also
spoken in the city.
Religion
Christianity is the predominant religion across Vanuatu, followed by more
than 90% of the population. The largest denomination is the Presbyterian
Church, followed by one third of the population. Roman Catholicism and the
Church of Melanesia are also common, each about 15%.
Climate
Port Vila has a tropical climate, with a dry season and a hot, wet season.
Rainfall averages about 2,360 millimetres (94 in.) per year. The area also
has south-east trade winds.
Education
Port Vila is one location of the University of the South Pacific, an
educational institution co-owned by twelve Pacific countries. The Vanuatu
campus is the only law school in the university, and it also teaches
languages.
World Heritage
Port Vila was the location in August 1999 for the important UNESCO meeting "2nd World Heritage Global Strategy Meeting for the Pacific Islands Region". One of the major topics with reference to Vanuatu and the Pacific region was the question of the suitability of underwater heritage for inscription on the World Heritage List.

Suva, Fiji

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Suva is the capital and largest city of Fiji. It is located on the southeast

coast of the island of Viti Levu, in the Central Division, Rewa Province, of

which it is the administrative centre. In 1877, it was decided to make Suva
the capital of Fiji when the geography of former main European settlement at

Levuka on the island of Ovalau proved too restrictive. The administration of

the colony was moved from Levuka to Suva in 1882. At the 2007 census the
city of Suva had a population of 85,691. Including independent suburbs, the
population of the Greater Suva urban area was 172,399 at the 2007 census
[not in citation given].

Physical Characteristics

Suva is the commercial and political centre of Fiji, though not necessarily
the cultural centre, and the largest urban area in the South Pacific outside

of Australia and New Zealand. It is Fiji's main port city.

Although Suva is on a peninsula, and almost surrounded by sea, the nearest
beach is 40 kilometres (25 mi) away at Pacific Harbour, and the nearby coast

is lined by mangroves. A significant part of the city centre, including the
old Parliament Buildings, is built on reclaimed mangrove swamp.
Suva is noted for its considerable rainfall, it has a markedly higher
rainfall than Nadi and the western side of Viti Levu, which is known to Suva

citizens as "the burning west". The First Governor of Fiji, Sir Aurthur
Gordon, allegedly remarked that it rained in Suva like he had seen no where
else before and that there was hardly a day without rain.

Landmarks

A well-known landmark is the Suva City Library or the Carnegie Library,
built in 1909 as well as many other colonial buildings.
The Government buildings complex sits on what was once the flowing waters of

a creek. This was drained in 1935 and over five kilometres of reinforced
concrete pilings were driven into the creek bed to support the massive
buildings to be erected. After the foundation stone was laid in 1937, the
building was completed in 1939; a new wing was completed in 1967. Parliament

however, was moved to a new complex on Ratu Sukuna Road in 1992.
Government House was formerly the residence of Fiji's colonial Governors and

following independence in 1970, Governors-General. It is now the official
residence of Fiji's President. Originally erected in 1882, it had to be
rebuilt in 1928, following its destruction by lightning in 1921.

The Suva campus of the University of the South Pacific (USP) occupies what
was once a New Zealand military base. It is the largest of the many USP
campuses dotted throughout the South Pacific and the largest University in
the Pacific islands outside Hawai'i.

The Fiji Museum, located in Thurston Gardens, was founded in 1904 and
originally occupied the old town hall, but moved to its present location in
1954. The museum houses the most extensive collection of Fijian artifacts in

the world, and is also a research and educational institution, specializing
in archeology, the preservation of Fiji's oral tradition, and the
publication of material on Fiji's language and culture.

Suva has around 78 parks, these include the new Takashi Suzuki Garden, Apted

Park at Suva Point which is a popular spot for viewing sunrise and sunset,
Thurston Gardens which was opened in 1913 and has flora from throughout the
South Pacific.

Suva also has many shopping and retail areas, notably Cumming street, which
has since colonial times, been a vibrant and colourful shopping area.
Features of these street include the original colonial buildings and narrow
roads. More modern shopping malls, such as the Suva Central Shopping Mall,
Mid-City Mall as well as the MHCC are all part of the developments to give
the city a modern and sophisticated look.

Demographics of Suva

Suva is a multiracial and multicultural city. Indigenous Fijians and
Indo-Fijians, the two principal ethnic groups of Fiji, comprise the bulk of
Suva's population, but the city is also home to the majority of Fiji's
ethnic minority populations, which include Caucasians (Europeans or
Kaivalagi), Part-Europeans (of European and Fijian Descent) and Chinese,
amongst others. The majority of expatriates working in Fiji are also based
in Suva. The most widely spoken language is English, but Fijian, Hindustani,

Cantonese, and other Indian languages are also spoken by their respective
communities.

Institutions

Suva is host to more international and regional intergovernmental agencies
and NGOs than any other Pacific Island capital. Some of the bodies with a
presence in Suva are:
* The TRAFFIC Oceania South Pacific Programme - funded by the UK Foreign and

Commonwealth Office, is located in Suva, in the offices of the WWF South
Pacific Programme. The programme assists in the implementation of CITES, but

also strengthens collaboration with the World Wide Fund for Nature.
* The Fiji School of Medicine - which is now classed as a regional agency
and a member of the Council of Regional Organisations in the Pacific
* The University of the South Pacific which operates a campus in Suva as
well as at other South Pacific locations.
* The Fiji Institute of Technology which is a major polytechnic in Fiji and
caters students from many small Pacific Island nations. It also has centres
in other Fiji towns of Nadi, Ba and Labasa.
* The Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC)
* The Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat
* The South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission.

Municipal government

Suva has municipal status and is governed by a Lord Mayor and a 20-member
city council. However, The current interim-government has reformed and
restructured all municipal councils as of October, 2008 and the position of
Mayor is now void.

History

In return for a promise to pay off debts owed to the United States by the
Bauan chieftain, Seru Epenisa Cakobau, the Australian-based Polynesia
Company was granted 5000 km² of land, 575 km² of it near what was then the
village of Suva, in 1868. The original intention was to develop a cotton
farming industry, but the land and climate proved unsuitable.

Following the annexation of the Fiji Islands by the United Kingdom in 1874,
the colonial authorities decided to move the capital to Suva from Levuka in
1877. The transfer was made official in 1882. Colonel F.E. Pratt of the
Royal Engineers was appointed Surveyor-General in 1875 and designed the new
capital, assisted by W. Stephens and Colonel R.W. Stewart.

Following the promulgation of the Municipal Constitution Ordinance of 1909,
Suva acquired municipal status in 1910. The town initially comprised one
square mile; these boundaries remained intact until 1952 when the Muanikau
and Samabula wards were annexed, expanding its territory to 13 square
kilometers. In October that year, Suva was proclaimed a City - Fiji's first.

Tamavua was subsequently annexed; the most recent extension of the city
boundaries has been to incorporate the Cunningham area to the north of the
city. Urban sprawl has resulted in a number of suburbs that remain outside
of the city limits; together with the city itself, they form a metropolitan
area known as the Greater Suva Area.

The city hosted the 2003 South Pacific Games, being the third time in the
event's 40 year history that they had been held in Suva. As part of the
hosting of the event a new gymnasium and indoor sports center, swimming pool

and stadium, field hockey pitch and stands were built in the area around
Suva, funded by the government and a $16 million People's Republic of China
aid package.

Transportation

Nausori International Airport caters mainly to the domestic market, but can serve smaller international aircraft. It also has service to its immediate Pacific neighbors such as Tuvalu and Tonga.

International Date Line

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The International Date Line (IDL) is an imaginary line on the surface of the

Earth opposite the Prime Meridian where the date changes as one travels east

or west across it. Roughly along 180° longitude, with diversions to pass
around some territories and island groups, it mostly corresponds to the time

zone boundary separating −12 and +12 hours Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
(Greenwich Mean Time – GMT). Crossing the IDL travelling east results in a
day or approximately 24 hours being subtracted, and crossing west results in

a day being added. The exact number of hours depends on the time zones.

Geography

For part of its length, the International Date Line follows the meridian of
180° longitude, roughly down the middle of the Pacific Ocean. In order to
keep from crossing nations internally, however, the line deviates to pass
around the far east of Russia and various island groups in the Pacific.

In the north the date line swings to the east through the Bering Strait and
then west past the Aleutian Islands in order to keep Alaska (part of the
United States) and Russia, which are due north and south of each other in
that region, on opposite sides of the line and in agreement with the date in

the rest of those countries. As a result of this line-adjusting, the right
to call itself "The Last Place on Earth" (that is, the latest place) goes to

the westernmost Aleutian Island of Attu.

The date line passes equidistantly between the two Diomede Islands—Little
Diomede Island (US) and Big Diomede Island (Russia)—at a distance of 1.5 km
(1 mi) from each island.

The date line circumvents the territory of Kiribati by swinging far to the
east, almost reaching the 150° meridian.

In the South Pacific the date line swings east such that Wallis and Futuna,
Fiji, Tonga, and New Zealand's Kermadec Islands have the same date but Samoa

is one day earlier.

The International Date Line can cause confusion among airline travelers. The

most troublesome situation usually occurs with short journeys from west to
east. To travel from Tonga to Samoa by air, for example, takes approximately

two hours but involves crossing the International Date Line, causing
passengers to arrive the day before they left. This often causes confusion
in travel schedules, like hotel bookings (unless those schedules quote times

in UTC, but they typically do not since they must match domestic travel
times, local transport, or meeting times). Some examples of time zone
adjustments for real air trips are: Alaska-Siberia 21 hours, New
Zealand-Cook Islands 22 hours, and Samoa-Tonga 24 hours.

If someone circumnavigates the globe in an airplane from east to west (the
same direction as Magellan), they should subtract one hour for every 15° of
longitude crossed, losing 24 hours for one circuit of the globe; but 24
hours are added when crossing the International Date Line (from east to
west). The International Date Line must therefore be observed in conjunction

with Earth's time zones: the net adjustment to one's watch is zero. If one
crosses the date line at precisely midnight, going westward, one skips an
entire day; while going eastward, one repeats the entire day.

For two hours every day, at UTC 10:00–11:59, there are actually three
different days observed at the same time. At UTC time Thursday 10:15, for
example, it is Wednesday 23:15 in Samoa, which is eleven hours behind UTC,
and it is Friday 00:15 in Kiritimati (separated from Samoa by the IDL),
which is fourteen hours ahead of UTC. For the first hour (UTC 10:00–10:59),
this phenomenon affects inhabited territories, whereas during the second
hour (UTC 11:00–11:59) it only affects an uninhabited maritime time zone
twelve hours behind UTC.

Cultural references

The first date line problem occurred in association with the
circumnavigation of the globe by Magellan's expedition (1519–1522). The
surviving crew returned to a Spanish stopover sure of the day of the week,
as attested by various carefully maintained sailing logs. Nevertheless,
those on land insisted the day was different. This phenomenon, now readily
understandable, caused great excitement at the time, to the extent that a
special delegation was sent to the Pope to explain this temporal oddity to
him.

The effect of ignoring the date line is also seen in Jules Verne's book
Around the World in Eighty Days, in which the travelers, led by Phileas Fogg

return to London after a trip around the world, thinking that they have
lost the bet that is the central premise of the story. Having traveled the
direction opposite to the one taken by Magellan, they believe the date there

to be one day later than it truly is.

Lest anyone accuse Fogg of cheating by obtaining one extra day, this is not
so. Assuming a constant eastward speed, each travel day was 18 minutes short

of a full 24 hours, accumulating to one full day, which they failed to
correct as we would by setting our calendar back a day in mid-Pacific. Also,

similar information is found in The Twenty-One Balloons.

The date line is also a central factor in Umberto Eco's book The Island of
the Day Before, in which the protagonist finds himself on a becalmed ship,
with an island close at hand on the other side of the International Date
Line. Unable to swim, the protagonist's writings indulge in increasingly
confused speculation of the physical, metaphysical and religious import of
the date line.

De facto and de jure date lines

The IDL drawn on the map on this page and all other maps is now and always
has been an artificial construct of cartographers—it is de facto. No
international organization nor any treaty between nations has fixed the
straight line" segments and their junctions. All nations unilaterally
determine their standard time zones, which are applicable only on land and
adjacent territorial waters. These national zones do not extend into
international waters. Indeed, the 1884 International Meridian Conference
explicitly refused to propose or agree to any time zones, stating that they
were outside its purview. The conference resolved that the Universal Day
(midnight-to-midnight Greenwich Mean Time), which it did agree to, "shall
not interfere with the use of local or standard time where desirable".

The nautical date line is a de jure construction determined by international

agreement. It is the result of the 1917 Anglo-French Conference on
Time-keeping at Sea, which recommended that all ships, both military and
civilian, adopt hourly standard time zones on the high seas. The United
States, for example, adopted its recommendation for US military and merchant

marine ships in 1920. This date line is implied but not explicitly drawn on
time zone maps. It follows the 180° meridian except where it is interrupted
by territorial waters adjacent to land, forming gaps—it is a pole-to-pole
dashed line. Ships must adopt the standard time of a country if they are
within its territorial waters, but must revert to international time zones
(15° wide pole-to-pole gores) as soon as they leave its territorial waters.
In reality they use these time zones only for radio communication etc.
Internally in the ship, e.g. for work and meal hours they use a suitable
time zone of their own wish. The 15° gore that is offset from UTC by twelve
hours is bisected by the nautical date line into two 7.5° gores that differ
from UTC by ±12 hours.

Historical alterations

The Philippines, as part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, long had its most
important communication with Acapulco in Mexico, and was accordingly placed
on the east side of the date line, despite being at the western edge of the
Pacific Ocean. 00:01 Tuesday in London was 17:21 Monday in Acapulco and
about 08:05 Monday in Manila. During the 1840s, trade interests turned to
China, the Dutch East Indies and adjacent areas, and the Philippines was
changed to the west side of the date line. Monday, 30 December 1844 (ending
up as a 365-day year, despite being a leap year) was followed by Wednesday,
1 January 1845.

Until 1867, Alaska began Russia's day, with the date line following the
partially defined border between Russian Alaska and British North America,
including the colony of British Columbia. The day before the purchase by the

United States took effect, it was Friday, 6 October 1867, in the Julian
calendar (used by Russia at the time), which would have been 18 October in
the Gregorian calendar. The time in New Archangel would have been 12:00 when

it was 12:02, Thursday, 17 October, at the future site of Whitehorse, Yukon,

and 12:49, 17 October, at the future site of Vancouver, British Columbia.
With the transfer of governance, the date line was shifted (moving Alaska
back a day), and the calendar was changed (moving Alaska ahead 12 days), and

being effective at midnight the calendar moved ahead one day as well, for a
net change of 11 days. Friday, 6 October, was followed by Friday, 18 October

(not Saturday, 7 October).

Samoa changed in 1892, eight years following the international conference
that would result in de facto development of the Date Line. The king was
persuaded by American traders to adopt the American date, being three hours
behind California, to replace the former Asian date, being four hours ahead
of Japan. The change was made at the end of the day on Monday, 4 July 1892,
so there were 367 days (1892 being a leap year), including two occurrences
of Monday, 4 July.

The central Pacific Republic of Kiribati introduced a change of date for its

eastern half on 1 January 1995, from time zones −11 and −10 to +13 and +14.
Before this, the country was divided by the date line. This meant that the
date line in effect moved eastwards to go around this country. As a British
colony, Kiribati was centered in the Gilbert Islands, just west of the old
date line. Upon independence in 1979, the new republic acquired the Phoenix
and Line Islands from the United States and the country found itself
straddling the date line. Government offices on opposite sides of the line
could only communicate by radio or telephone on the four days of the week
when both sides experienced weekdays simultaneously. A consequence of this
time zone revision was that Kiribati, by virtue of its easternmost
possession, the uninhabited Caroline Atoll at 150°25′ west, started the year

2000 on its territory before any other country on earth, a feature which the

Kiribati government capitalized upon as a potential tourist draw. But Ariel
and Berger comment that the international community has not taken this date
line adjustment very seriously, noting that most world atlases still ignore
this Kiribati dateline shift and they continue to represent the
International Date as a straight line in the Kiribati area.

Jewish date lines

The concept of an international date line is first mentioned in a 12th
century Talmudic commentary which seems to indicate that the day changes in
an area where the time is six hours ahead of Jerusalem (90 degrees east of
Jerusalem, a line running through the Philippines). This line which he
refers to as the K'tzai Hamizrach (the easternmost line) is used to
calculate the day of Rosh Hashana, the Jewish New Year. According to some
sources it is alluded to in the Talmud (Rosh Hashana and Eruvin) as well as
in the Jerusalem Talmud.

The date line poses a problem for religious travelers relative to the day on which to observe the Shabbat and Holidays. The Shabbat is on the seventh day of the week which is constant if you stay on the same side of the date line. The problem occurs when a Jewish traveler crosses the line and for him it is Friday but for the city he is visiting, it is Saturday. Most authorities[by whom?] hold that he should keep his own calendar (so it is still Friday for him) until he meets locals for whom it is Saturday and only then would he use the local calendar.

Origin of Samoa

The origin of Samoa, according to the stories told by the chiefs, is that Samoan people are actually from unknown land call "Savaiki", which most people believe is in Savaii. According to the ancient Samoan belief, everyone in the Polynesian area is from Savaiki. This is in accord with folk stories from other cultures in the Polynesian area: The Tongans believed that they are from Hauaiki, Maori people believe that they are from Hawaiki, Hawaiians believed that they are from Hawaii. It was originally believed that all Polynesians migrated from Hawaii, but DNA analysis indicates that these cultures are closely related to Samoans. It is thought that migration patterns from Samoa led the Polynesian people northward to Hawaii, southward to Maori, eastward to Fiji and westward to Tonga.