Durban, South Africa

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Durban (Zulu: eThekwini) is the third largest city in South Africa, forming
part of the eThekwini metropolitan municipality. It is the largest city in
KwaZulu-Natal and is famous as the busiest port in Africa. It is also a
major centre of tourism due to the city's warm subtropical climate and
beaches.

According to the 2007 Community Survey, the city has a population of almost
3.5 million. Durban's land area of 2,292 square kilometers (884.9 sq mi) is
comparatively larger than other South African cities, resulting in a
somewhat lower population density of 1,513 inhabitants per square kilometre
(3,918.7/sq mi).

History

It is thought that the first known inhabitants of the Durban area arrived
from the north around 100,000 BC, according to carbon dating of rock art
found in caves in the Drakensberg. These people were living in the central
plains of KwaZulu-Natal until the expansion of Bantu people from the north
sometime during the last millennium.

Little is known of the history of the first residents, as there is no
written history of the area before it was first mentioned by Portuguese
explorer Vasco da Gama, who came to the KwaZulu-Natal coast while searching
for a route from Europe to India. He landed on the KwaZulu-Natal coast on
Christmas in 1497, and thus named the area "Natal", or Christmas in
Portuguese.

The modern city of Durban dates from 1824, when a party of 25 men under
British Lieutenant F. G. Farewell arrived from the Cape Colony and
established a settlement on the northern shore of the Bay of Natal, near
today's Farewell Square. Accompanying Farewell was an adventurer named Henry

Francis Fynn (1803–1861). Fynn was able to befriend the Zulu King Shaka by
helping him to recover from a stab wound he suffered in battle. As a token
of Shaka's gratitude, he granted Fynn a "25-mile strip of coast a hundred
miles in depth."

During a meeting of 35 white residents in Fynn's territory on June 23, 1835,

it was decided to build a capital town and name it "d'Urban" after Sir
Benjamin d'Urban, then governor of the Cape Colony.

Fierce conflict with the Zulu population led to the evacuation of Durban,
and eventually the Afrikaners accepted British annexation in 1844 under
military pressure.
A British governor was appointed to the region and many settlers emigrated
from Europe and the Cape Colony. The British established a sugar cane
industry in the 1860s. Farm owners had a difficult time attracting Zulu
labourers to work on their plantations, so the British brought thousands of
indentured labourers from India on five-year contracts. As a result of the
importation of Indian labourers, Durban became the largest Asian community
in South Africa.

Durban today

Today, Durban is the busiest container port in Africa, and a popular tourist

destination. The Golden Mile, developed as a welcoming tourist destination
in the 1970s, as well as Durban at large, provide ample tourist attractions,

particularly for people on holiday from Johannesburg. It lost its
international holiday pre-eminence to Cape Town in the 1990s, but remains
more popular among domestic tourists. The city is also a gateway to the
national parks and historic sites of Zululand and the Drakensberg.

Geography and climate

Durban is characterised by a mild subtropical climate with warm wet summers
and mild moist to dry winters, which are frost-free. However, due to large
altitude variations, some western suburbs get slightly chilly in the winter.

Durban has an annual rainfall of 1,009 millimetres (39.7 in) The average
annual temperature is 210C, with daytime maxima peaking from January to
March at 28 °C (82 °F) and the minimum is 21 °C (70 °F), dropping to daytime

highs from June to August of 23 °C (73 °F) and the minimum is 11 °C (52 °F).

Sunrise in Durban is at 04h45 *(04h15) and sunset is 19h00 *(19h30) in
summer & rise at 06h30 *(06h10) and set at 17h20 *(17h00) in winter. (* =
dawn and dusk)

The metropolitan area is topographically hilly, with very few flat areas,
except in the immediate vicinity of the central business district and the
harbour. The western suburbs off Hillcrest and Kloof are significantly
higher above sea-level, reaching up to 850 metres (2,789 ft) in the
community of Botha's Hill. Many gorges and ravines are found within the
metropolitan area. There is almost no true coastal plain.

Rickshaws

Durban is also famous for its iconic Zulu Rickshaw pullers navigating throughout the city. These colourful characters are famous for their giant, vibrant hats and costumes. Although they have been a mode of transportation since the early 1900s, they mostly cater to tourists.

Port Elizabeth, South Africa

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Port Elizabeth (Xhosa: Ebhayi; colloquial Afrikaans: 'Die Baai') is one of
the largest cities in South Africa, situated in the Eastern Cape Province,
770 km east of Cape Town. The city, often shortened to PE and nicknamed "The
Friendly City" or "The Windy City", stretches for 16 km along Algoa Bay, and
is one of the major seaports in South Africa. It is also referred to as
Africa's Watersport Capital.

Port Elizabeth was founded as a town in 1820 to house British settlers as a
way of strengthening the border region between the Cape Colony and the Xhosa
It now forms part of the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality which
has a population of over 1.3 million.

The city is in a friendship partnership with the Swedish city of Gothenburg
and is a sister city to the American cities of Jacksonville, Florida and
Palm Desert, California.

History

The area around what is now called Algoa Bay was first settled by indigenous
tribes countless centuries ago. It is said that the San and Khoisan people
were amongst the first inhabitants, and the Xhosa came later. However,
little is known as no written records are believed to exist from that time.

The first Europeans to have visited the area were Portuguese explorers
Bartolomeu Dias, who landed on St Croix Island in Algoa Bay in 1488, and
Vasco da Gama who noted the nearby Bird Island in 1497. For centuries, the
area was simply marked on navigation charts as "a landing place with fresh
water".

The area was part of the Cape Colony, which had a turbulent history between
its founding by the Dutch East India Company in 1652 and the formation of
the Union of South Africa in 1910.

Fort Frederick

In 1799, during the first British occupation of the Colony during the
Napoleonic Wars, a stone Fort was built, named Fort Frederick after the then
Duke of York. This fort, built to protect against a possible landing of
French Troops, overlooked the site of what later became Port Elizabeth and
is now a monument.

In 1804 the town of Uitenhage was founded along the Swartkops River, a short
distance inland from its estuary at Algoa Bay. Uitenhage formed part of the
district of Graaff-Reinet at that time. The city of Uitenhage was
incorporated in the new Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Municipality together
with Port Elizabeth and the town of Despatch in 2001.

From 1814 to 1821 the Strandfontein farm, which later became the
Summerstrand beach suburb of Port Elizabeth, was in possession of Piet
Retief, who later became a Voortrekker leader and was killed in 1837 by Zulu
king Dingane during negotiations about land. An estimated 500 men, woman and
children of his party were massacred. After Retief the Strandfontein farm
was owned by Frederik Korsten after whom another suburb of Port Elizabeth is
named today.

In 1820 a party of 4,000 British settlers arrived by sea, encouraged by the
government of the Cape Colony as a settlement would strengthen the border
region between the Cape Colony and the Xhosa people. At this time the
seaport town was founded by Sir Rufane Shaw Donkin, the Acting Governor of
the Cape Colony, who named it after his late wife, Elizabeth. The town
expanded, building a diverse community comprising European, Cape Malay and
other immigrants, and particularly rapidly so after 1873 when the railway to
Kimberley was built. The Apostolic Vicariate of Cape of Good Hope, Eastern
District, was established in the city in 1847. In 1861 the town was granted
the status of autonomous municipality.

Horse Memorial

During the Second Boer War, the port was an important transit point for
soldiers, horses and materials headed to the front by railway. While the
city itself did not see any conflict, many refugees from the war moved into
the city. These included Boer women and children interned by the British in
a concentration camp. Following that war, the Horse Memorial was erected to
honour the tens of thousands of horses and mules that died during the
conflict.

Apartheid era

The effects of the apartheid regime were not lost on Port Elizabeth. Forced
relocation of the non-white population under the Group Areas Act began in
1962, causing various townships to be built. The whole of the South End
district, being a prime real estate location, was forcibly depopulated and
flattened in 1965; relocations continued until 1975. In 1977 Steve Biko, the
black anti-apartheid activist, was interrogated and tortured by the security
police in PE, before being transported to Pretoria where he died. Other
notable deaths in the city during this time included the Cradock Four.

During the 1960s and 1970s the character of Port Elizabeth was changed and
its face marred by two projects. The university was removed from the
historical and picturesque old part of Port Elizabeth on a hill overlooking
the city centre and harbour to a sandy area on the outskirts of town. The
campus in town was completely inadequate. Since this removal, the old centre
of Port Elizabeth has seen a slow decline. This decline was augmented by a
second project, namely the building of a series of highways, viaducts and
interchanges directly along the coast and over the roof of the central
station thereby severing the old town from the station and harbour,
destroying much of its history, integrity, allure and safety. The same
system of highways also added to the damage already done by industries to
the beautiful and fragile wetland area of the Swartkops estuary, one of Port
Elizabeth's main natural assets.

Post apartheid

Since the multiracial elections of 1994, Port Elizabeth has faced the same
problems as the rest of South Africa, including HIV/AIDS and a surge in
violent, often drug-related, crime. However, thanks to the booming tourism
and real estate industries, development continues apace both in the city and
nearby, for example in the new R20Billion Industrial Development Zone at
Coega.

In 2001, the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality was formed as an
administrative area covering Port Elizabeth, the neighbouring towns of
Uitenhage and Despatch and the surrounding agricultural areas. The name was
chosen to honour former President Nelson Mandela. The combined metropolitan
area has a population estimated at around 1.3 million as of 2006.

2010 FIFA World Cup

The Port Elizabeth harbour, waterfront and city centre are in the process of
being upgraded before the 2010 FIFA World Cup, and are expected to rival the
popular Cape Town waterfront. The city is one of the venues for World Cup
games, and many more visitors are expected. To this end, there are calls for
Port Elizabeth Airport to be upgraded, to ease the journey time and effort
both for World Cup teams and spectators, and also more generally for
tourists.

Trade and industry

Home of South Africa's motor vehicle industry, Port Elizabeth boasts most
vehicle assembly plants, General Motors, Volkswagen, Ford, Continental Tyres
and many more automotive companies. Most other industries in the NMMM are
geared towards the motor vehicle industry, providing parts such as wiring
harnesses, catalytic converters, batteries and tyres to the vehicle
manufacturers.

Port Elizabeth is also a major seaport, with the most significant ore
loading facilities in the southern hemisphere. As part of the ongoing
development, a new Industrial Development Zone with expanded port facilities
is being built at Coega.

Geography and climate

"The Windy City" has a subtropical climate with light rain throughout the year. The area lies between the winter rainfall, Mediterranean climate zones of the Western Cape and the summer rainfall regions of eastern South Africa. Winters are cool but mild and summers are warm but considerably less humid and hot than more northerly parts of South Africa's east coast.

Cape Town, South Africa

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Cape Town is the second-most populous city in South Africa, and the largest

in land area, forming part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan

municipality. It is the provincial capital and Primate City of the Western

Cape, as well as the legislative capital of South Africa, where the National

Parliament and many government offices are situated. Cape Town is famous for

its harbour as well as its natural setting in the Cape floral kingdom,

including such well-known landmarks as Table Mountain and Cape Point. Cape

Town is Africa's most popular destination for tourism.

Located on the shore of Table Bay, Cape Town was originally developed by the

Dutch East India Company as a victualling (supply) station for Dutch ships

sailing to Eastern Africa, India, and the Far East. Jan van Riebeeck's

arrival on 6 April 1652 established the first permanent European settlement

in South Africa. Cape Town quickly outgrew its original purpose as the first

European outpost at the Castle of Good Hope, becoming the economic and

cultural hub of the Cape Colony. Until the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the

development of Johannesburg, Cape Town was the largest city in South Africa.

It is one of the most multicultural cities in the world, reflecting its role

as a major destination for immigrants and expatriates to South Africa. As of

2007 the city had an estimated population of 3.5 million. Cape Town's land

area of 2,455 square kilometers (948 sq mi) is larger than other South

African cities, resulting in a comparatively lower population density of 1

425 inhabitants per square kilometer (3,690 /sq mi).

History

There is no certainty as to when humans first occupied the area prior to the

first visits of Europeans in the 15th century. The earliest known remnants

in the region were found at Peers cave in Fish Hoek and date to between 15

000 and 12,000 years ago. Little is known of the history of the region's

first residents, since there is no written history from the area before it

was first mentioned by Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias in 1486. Vasco da

Gama recorded a sighting of the Cape of Good Hope in 1497, and the area did

not have regular contact with Europeans until 1652, when Jan van Riebeeck

and other employees of the Dutch East India Company (Dutch: Verenigde

Oost-indische Compagnie, VOC) were sent to the Cape to establish a

way-station for ships traveling to the Dutch East Indies, and the Redout

Duijnhoop (later replaced by the Castle of Good Hope). The city grew slowly

during this period, as it was hard to find adequate labor. This labor

shortage prompted the city to import slaves from Indonesia and Madagascar.

Many of these became ancestors of the first Cape Colored communities.

During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, the Netherlands was

repeatedly occupied by France, and Great Britain moved to take control of

Dutch colonies. Britain captured Cape Town in 1795, but the Cape was

returned to the Netherlands by treaty in 1803. British forces occupied the

Cape again in 1806 following the battle of Bloubergstrand. In the

Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, Cape Town was permanently ceded to Britain. It

became the capital of the newly formed Cape Colony, whose territory expanded

very substantially through the 1800s.

The discovery of diamonds in Griqualand West in 1867, and the Witwatersrand

Gold Rush in 1886, prompted a flood of immigrants to South Africa. Conflicts

between the Boer republics in the interior and the British colonial

government resulted in the Second Boer War of 1899-1902, which Britain won.

In 1910, Britain established the Union of South Africa, which unified the

Cape Colony with the two defeated Boer Republics and the British colony of

Natal. Cape Town became the legislative capital of the Union, and later of

the Republic of South Africa.

In the 1948 national elections, the National Party won on a platform of

apartheid (racial segregation) under the slogan of "swart gevaar". This led

to the Group Areas Act, which classified all areas according to race.

Formerly multi-racial suburbs of Cape Town were either purged of unlawful

residents or demolished. The most infamous example of this in Cape Town was

District Six. After it was declared a whites-only region in 1965, all

housing there was demolished and over 60,000 residents were forcibly removed

Many of these residents were relocated to the Cape Flats and Lavender Hill.

Under apartheid, the Cape was considered a "Colored labor preference area",

to the exclusion of "Bantus", i.e. blacks.

Cape Town was home to many leaders of the anti-apartheid movement. On Robben

Island, a former penitentiary island 10 kilometers from the city, many

famous political prisoners were held for years. In one of the most famous

moments marking the end of apartheid, Nelson Mandela made his first public

speech in decades on 11 February 1990 from the balcony of Cape Town City

Hall hours after being released. His speech heralded the beginning of a new

era for the country, and the first democratic election was held four years

later, on 27 April 1994. Nobel Square in the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront

features statues of South Africa's four Nobel Peace Prize winners - Albert

Luthuli, Desmond Tutu, F.W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela. Since 1994, the

city has struggled with problems such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, a surge in

violent drug-related crime and more recent xenophobic violence. At the same

time, the economy has surged to unprecedented levels due to the boom in the

tourism and the real estate industries.

Geography

The centre of Cape Town is located at the northern end of the Cape Peninsula

Table Mountain forms a dramatic backdrop to the City Bowl, with its plateau

over 1,000 m (3,300 ft) high; it is surrounded by near-vertical cliffs,

Devil's Peak and Lion's Head. Sometimes a thin strip of cloud forms over the

mountain, and owing to its appearance, it is colloquially known as the

tablecloth". The peninsula consists of a dramatic mountainous spine jutting

southwards into the Atlantic Ocean, ending at Cape Point. There are over 70

peaks above 1,000 feet (300 m) (the American definition of a mountain)

within Cape Town's official city limits. Many of the suburbs of Cape Town

are on the large plain of the Cape Flats, which joins the peninsula to the

mainland. The Cape Flats lie on what is known as a rising marine plain,

consisting mostly of sandy geology which shows that at one point Table

Mountain itself was an island.

Climate

The Cape Peninsula has a Mediterranean climate, this climate type means the

city has well-defined seasons. In winter time, which lasts from May to

September, large cold fronts come across from the Atlantic Ocean with heavy

precipitation and strong north-westerly winds. The winter months are cool,

with an average minimum temperature of 7 °C (45 °F) and an average maximum

of around 17 °C (63 °F). Most of the city's annual rainfall occurs in

wintertime, but due to the mountainous topography of the city, rainfall

amounts for specific areas can vary dramatically. Newlands, to the south of

the city, is the wettest suburb in South Africa. The valleys and coastal

plains average 515 millimeters (20 in) of rain per annum, while mountain

areas can average as much as 1,500 millimeters (60 in) per annum.

Summer, which lasts from November to March, is warm and dry. The Peninsula gets frequent strong winds from the south-east, known locally as the Cape Doctor, because it blows away pollution and cleans the air. The south-easterly wind is caused by a high-pressure system which sits in the South Atlantic to the west of Cape Town, known as the South-Atlantic High. Summer temperatures are mild, with an average maximum of 26 °C (79 °F). Cape Town can be uncomfortably hot when the Berg Wind, meaning "mountain wind" blows from the Karoo interior for a couple of weeks in February or early March.

Lüderitz, Namibia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lüderitz is a small harbour town in south-west Namibia, lying on one of the
least hospitable coasts in Africa. It is a port developed around Robert
Harbour and Shark Island.

Overview

It was founded in 1883 when Heinrich Vogelsang purchased Angra Pequena and
some of the surrounding land on behalf of Adolf Lüderitz, a Hanseat from
Bremen in Germany, from the local Nama chief. Lüderitz began its life as a
trading post, with other activities in fishing and guano-harvesting. In 1909
after the discovery of diamonds nearby, Lüderitz enjoyed a sudden surge of
prosperity. Today, however, diamonds are mostly found elsewhere and offshore
and Lüderitz has lost a lot of this interest.

The harbour has a very shallow rock bottom, making it unusable for modern
ships; this led to Walvis Bay becoming the centre of the Namibian shipping
industry. Recently, however, the addition of a new quay has allowed larger
fishing vessels the dock at Lüderitz. To town has also re-styled itself in
an attempt to lure tourists to the area, which includes a new waterfront
area for shops and offices.

The town is known for its colonial architecture, including some Art Nouveau
work, and for wildlife including seals, penguins, flamingos and ostriches.
It is also home to a museum and to the Lüderitz Speed Challenge, and
formerly lay at the end of a railway line to Keetmanshoop.

Lüderitz was the starting point for explorer and sailor Amyr Klink's
successful solo crossing of the Atlantic Ocean, rowing for 101 days all the
way to the Brazilian coast with no other form of propulsion, in 1984.

In April 2009, an oil spill from an off-coast oil tanker spilled, risking
hundreds of African Penguins and other flora and fauna.

Ghost towns

Just outside of Lüderitz lies the ghost town of Kolmanskop. This previously
bustling diamond town is now abandoned, and fights a constant struggle
against being buried under the shifting sand dunes of the Namib desert.

Another ghost town called Elizabeth Bay lies 30 km to the south.

Conservation

The coastline in the area is recognised by Bird Life and other global
conservation groups as one of the Important Bird Areas (IBAs) for important
coastal seabird breeding.

Mercury Island, Ichaboe Island, Halifax Island and the Possession Islands
support the entire Namibian breeding population of Cape Gannets Morus
Capensis, 96% of the Namibian population of the endangered African Penguin
Spheniscus Demersus, and nearly one quarter of the global breeding
population of Crowned Cormorants Phalacrocorax coronatus.

Approximately 80% of the global population of the endangered Bank Cormorant Phalacrocorax neglectus breeds on Mercury Island and in the Ichaboe Islands.

Walvis Bay, Namibia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Walvis Bay is a city in Namibia and the name of the bay on which it lies.

The bay has been a haven for sea vessels because of its natural deepwater
harbour, protected by the Pelican Point sand spit, being the only natural
harbour of any size along the country's coast. Being rich in plankton and
marine life, these waters also drew large numbers of whales attracting
whalers and fishing vessels. The Dutch referred to it as Walvisch Baye and
the English as Whale Bay, and in its eventual proclamation it came to be
called Walfish Bay, and eventually Walvis Bay. It has also been referred to
as Walwich Bay or Walwisch Bay.

A succession of colonists developed the location and resources of this
strategic harbour settlement. The harbour's value in relation to the sea
route around the Cape of Good Hope had caught the attention of world powers
since it was discovered. This explains the complicated political status of
Walvis Bay down the years.

The town is situated in the Kuiseb river delta and lies at the end of the
TransNamib Railway to Windhoek, and on the B2 road.

Walvis Bay, with its large bay and sand dunes, is the tourism activity
centre of Namibia. Other attractions include the artificial Bird Island,
centre of a guano collection industry, the Dune 7 sand dune, salt works,
birdlife and a museum. Kuisebmund Stadium, home to two clubs in the Namibia
Premier League, is also located in the city and the beach resort of
Langstrand lies just a few kilometers north. The Walvis Bay Export
Processing Zone is an important facet of the local economy.

History

The Portuguese navigator Bartolomeu Dias anchored his flagship São Cristóvão
in what is now Walvis Bay on 8 December 1487, on his expedition to discover
a sea route to the East via the Cape of Good Hope. He named the bay "O Golfo
de Santa Maria da Conceição." However, the Portuguese did not formally stake
a claim to Walvis Bay.

Little commercial development occurred on the site until 1840, when in the
scramble for Africa, Britain, the dominant seafaring nation at the time,
annexed Walvis Bay and a small area surrounding the territory in 1878 as
part of Cape Colony both to forestall German ambitions in the region and to
ensure safe passage of British ships around the Cape. In 1910, Walvis Bay,
as well as the Cape Colony, became part of the newly formed Union of South
Africa. However, a dispute arose with Germany over the enclave's boundaries.
This was eventually settled in 1911 and Walvis Bay was allocated an area of
434 square miles (1,124 km2).

The enclave was overrun by the Germans during the South-West Africa Campaign
early in World War I. But South African Forces eventually ousted the Germans
in 1915 and Walvis Bay was quickly integrated into the new martial law
regime established in South-West Africa. South Africa was later awarded
control (a "C" class mandate) over South-West Africa by the League of
Nations to administer SWA as an integral part of South Africa. Civilian rule
was restored in South-West Africa in 1921 and administration of Walvis Bay
was transferred to SWA by Act of the South African parliament in 1922.

In 1971, anticipating an imminent ceding of its control over South-West
Africa, South Africa transferred control of Walvis Bay back to its Cape
Province. In 1977, in an attempt to avoid losing control of Walvis Bay to a
possibly hostile SWAPO-led government, the South African government
reimposed direct rule and reasserted its claim of sovereignty based on the
original annexation. In 1978, the United Nations Security Council provided
for bilateral negotiations between South Africa and a future Namibia to
resolve the political status of Walvis Bay.

In 1990 South-West Africa gained independence as Namibia but Walvis Bay
remained under South African sovereignty. At midnight on 28 February 1994
sovereignty over
Walvis Bay was formally transferred to Namibia, and also over the Penguin
Islands.

Climate

Walvis Bay features the very rare mild variation of the arid climate. Walvis
Bay receives an average of only 83 mm of precipitation per year, making it
one of the driest cities on the planet. Despite the fact that it has an arid
climate, Walvis Bay seldom gets very hot or very cold, an extremely unusual
feature for a city featuring this climate. This is primarily due to cold
offshore currents near Walvis Bay. Temperatures averages around 24°C during
January, Walvis Bay's warmest month and around 17°C during July, its coldest
month.

Pengorbanan Itu Harus Ada

Hari ini saya berkunjung ke Sofyan Hotel untuk fixasi tempat Training
HIPNOKOMUNIKASI yang sedianya akan dilaksanakan pada sabtu minggu akhir
january besok.

Satu hal yang menarik adalah ketika saya mendiskusikan tentang penjualan
Hotel Sofyan Cikini yang akan dilaksanakan pada akhir bulan ini. Saya cukup
kaget. Karena Mengapa Hotel seperti Sofyan yang dikenal BAGUS di Jakarta
harus menjual ASET mereka yang sangat berharga. Dalam diskusi dengan Mbak
Fetty barulah saya fahami, bahwa salah satu faktor mengapa mereka menjual
ASET berharga mereka adalah karena mereka ingin BERKEMBANG. Yah Berkembang.
Dibutuhkan PENGORBANAN untuk pengembangan Hotel Sofyan. Agar Hotel Sofyan
bisa lebih berkelas dan lebih terkenal di Indonesia nantinya.

Membahas PENGORBANAN, bukan hanya Hotel Sofyan yang berkorban untuk
BERKEMBANG, atau SUKSES lebih baik lagi dimasa mendatang. Orang-orang yang
sukses senantiasa memperhatikan PENGORBANAN untuk SUKSES. Mereka mempercayai

tidak ada makan siang yang gratis. There's NO FREE LUNCH. Artinya dibutuhkan

pengorbanan untuk meraih kesuksesan.

Kita mungkin pernah mendengar kisah Ilmuwan sukses seperti James Watt,
Einstein, Graham Bell, Da Vinci, Copernicus, Alfa Edisson yang mengorbankan
waktu tidurnya demi kesuksesannya sebagai ilmuwan ternama.

Kita mungkin pernah melihat di televisi bagaimana kisah para PENGUSAHA yang
SUKSES dan meniti karir dari bawah, harus berjuang berjalan sampai malam
untuk menjualkan Barang Dagangannya.

Semua Butuh Pengorbanan dan tidak ada yang GRATIS.

Bahkan MOTIVATOR HEBAT seperti Tung Desem, Andrie Wongso, Ronny FR, Abdul
Aziez, Mas Krishnamurti, Kang Isman, Kang Asep, dan motivator yang lainnya
termasuk saya pasti BERKORBAN untuk menjadi seorang MOTIVATOR HEBAT.
Setidaknya mereka mengorbankan Waktu yang mereka miliki untuk senantiasa
berbagi. Bahkan mereka tidak segan-segan mengorbankan FINANSIAL untuk
berinvestasi dengan Belajar Kepada PARA MOTIVATOR DUNIA agar Mereka mampu
dan bisa menjadi Motivator yang Hebat seperti sekarang ini.

Tidak mungkin seseorang bisa sukses tanpa berusaha.

Tidak mungkin seseorang bisa berhasil tanpa pengorbanan

Jika Kita mengatakan diri kita untuk sukses. Mari kita tanyakan, Apa yang
sudah kita korbankan untuk kesuksesan IMPIAN yang sudah kita rencanakan.

Bahkan seorang yang SUKSES mendapatkan hadiah dari QUIZ SMS pun juga harus
mengorbankan UANG membayar tarif SMS sebesar 500 hingga 5000/sms nya.

Dengan Pengorbanan kita akan meraih kesuksesan asal BENAR. Artinya,
sepanjang pengorbanan kita adalah dalam rangka perwujudan sebuah Impian,
maka lakukanlah pengorbanan itu.

Selain itu, Pengorbanan juga harus mempertimbangkan ASPEK RESIKO. Hati-hati
BERKORBAN bukan berarti menjadikan diri anda seperti LILIN. Yang memberikan
cahaya namun membakar dirinya sendiri. Tetapi Berkorban adalah seperti
seorang suami yang rela mencarikan buah Mangga di malam hari demi Istrinya
tercinta. Dia berkorban dengan tulus. Namun dia berkorban juga memiliki
tujuan. Yaitu kebahagiaan dan cinta.

Ketika anda memang mencintai IMPIAN anda.
Ketika anda memang bahagia dengan IMPIAN anda

Tentu anda rela berkorban demi IMPIAN itu

Karena kita fahami jika kita ingin meraih IMPIAN
maka PENGORBANAN itu HARUS ada

Sudahkah kita berkorban untuk IMPIAN kita?
Sudahkah kita berkorban untuk kesuksesan KARIR kita?

mari kita renungkan bersama

A.Setiawan
Keep on Smile to Face the World
http://TrainingGratis.co.nr
Life Learner,Trainer & Motivator

Agama, Kepribadian Dan Spiritualitas

Oleh : Anatta Gotama, Denpasar

Tak dapat dipungkiri bahwa agama yang dianut seseorang membentuk dasar
"Kepribadian"nya. Seberapa besar IA menerima manfaat dari agama yang
dianutnya, di dalam membentuk Kepribadiannya, ditentukan oleh seberapa
banyak IA berhasil mencerap "nilai-nilai luhur" yang dikandung agama yang
dianutnya.

Dalam banyak hal, kepribadian menyangkut "etika moral" seseorang, maksudnya,
etika-moral yang diterapkan seseorang dalam hidupnyalah yang terpantul
sebagai prilaku yang mencerminkan kepribadian seseorang di Mata orang lain.

Dalam sebuah tulisannya, Ada yang mengelompokkan umat beragama ke dalam 6
kelompok pandang, sesuai dengan sejauh mana seseorang mampu memandang dan
memperlakukan agama yang dianutnya.

Ada yang memandang:
- Agama sebagai Organisasi Sosial.
- Agama sebagai Ajaran Etika Moral.
- Agama sebagai Ajaran Spiritual-Religius.
- Agama sebagai Ajaran Spiritual-Filosofis.
- Agama sebagai Pandangan Hidup.
- Agama sebagai Jalan Kesempurnaan Dan Kelepasan.

Secara konstekstual, dari ke-enam kelompok pandang ini, yang terkait
langsung dengan Kepribadian adalah, memandang agama sebagai "Ajaran Etika
Moral". Lebih jauh disebutkan bahwa, memandangnya sebagai ajaran yang
memberi bimbingan etika-moral, para penganutnya mengekpresikan tuntunan
etika-moral yang diajarkan, dalam prilakunya. Beragama bagi mereka adalah
penerapan etika-moral sesuai ajaran yang dianut. Disini tampak jelas adanya
benang merah antara Agama - Eika Moral - Kepribadian.

Kepribadian Dan Penampilan

Seseorang tampil beda di Mata orang lain sesuai kepribadian masing-masing.
Mereka yang murah senyum, ramah, terbuka, pendengar yang baik, penuh
pengertian, punya tenggang-rasa, polos, murah hati, sederhana, jujur, mudah
beradaptasi dengan lingkungan, berani Dan mau mengalah, cerdas, disenangi
oleh banyak orang Dan dapat dijadikan sahabat yang baik.

Dalam sebuah makalahnya, yang berjudul " Penampilan sebagai Penunjang
Keberhasilan", Kusumadewi mengemukakan bahwa, penampilan yang baik akan
lebih memukau, jika disertai dengan pancaran kepribadian yang menyenangkan.

Dalam makalah yang sama, IA juga mengajukan "10 - Pedoman Pokok", yang dapat
membuat orang lain menyukai Anda sepenuh hati. Kesepuluh pedoman yang
dipetik dari buku Dr. Dale Carnegie berjudul "How To Win Friends And
Influence People" tersebut adalah:
1) Hindari kebiasaan mengkritik seseorang, karena berbagai kekurangan,
kekeliruan Dan ketidaktahuannya.
2) Hargai orang lain dengan tulus Dan sejujurnya.
3) Biasakanlah selalu tersenyum.
4) Dalam pergaulan, usahakan dapat 'mengingat nama' orang yang pernah
dikenal atau pernah diperkenalkan. Oleh karena, namanya adalah kata terindah
yang diucapkan orang lain ditelinga.
5) Dalam berbicara dengan orang lain, usahakan menjadi pendengar yang baik.
Doronglah IA agar mengungkapkan sebanyak-banyaknya tentarig dinnya,
persoalannya Dan kepentingannya.
6) Dalam berbicara dengan orang lain, tempatkan kepentingannya dalam fokus
pernbicaraan. Dengan kata lain, lakukan pembicaraan Dan kacamata kepentingan
yang bersangkutan.
7) Dalam menghadapi orang lain, usahakan agar orang lain merasa dirinya
penting, Dan lakukan itu dengan setulus-hati, bukan dibuat-buat.
8) Jika Anda bersalah, segera akui kesalahan tersebut dengan jujur Dan
rendah hati.
9) Hargai pendapat orang lain, walaupun Anda tidak sependapat.
10) Jangan salahkan orang lain dengan cara mempermalukannya. Meskipun orang
tersebut bawahan Anda atau pembantu Anda sekalipun.

Kesepuluh pedoman pokok Dan Dale Carnegie di atas dapat dilaksanakan setiap
orang, jika yang bersangkutan memang bertekad ingin meningkatkan pesona
kepribadiannya. Hambatan untuk mengikuti kesepuluh pedoman di atas biasanya
adalah 'kesibukan'. Ketika kesibukan memuncak, Kita cenderung menjadi 'tidak
sabar'. Ketidak-sabaran sering mendorong seseorang lupa menempatkan dirinya
dalam suatu keselarasan Dan keseimbangan dengan perasaan Dan kepentingan
orang lain.

Memang Kepribadian adalah salah satu komponen utama "inner beauty" seseorang
disamping Kecerdasan-nya. Oleh karenanya, IA kini menjadi salah satu bidang
yang diajarkan dalam institusi pendidikan Dan pelatihan formal maupun
informal, khusus untuk itu antara bagaimana seseorang memandang agama yang
dianutnya, Dan menjadikan ajaran etika-moralnya sebagai pedoman hidup, serta
penampilan Dan kepribadiannya secara menyeluruh.

Agama Dan Spiritualitas

Bagi awam, bisa jadi antara pengertian agama Dan spiritualitas serasa kabur.
Para agamawan seringkali bicara soal spiritual, sementara kaum spiritualis
juga sering kali berpijak Dan mengacu pada ajaran agama tertentu, yang
dianutnya. Fakta ini menambah kebingungan awam tentang yang mana ajaran
spiritual Dan yang mana doktrin atau ajaran agama.

Kendati dalam ajaran-ajaran agama terkandung ajaran spiritual, namun
ternyata tidak semua ajaran-ajaran agama atau aktivitas keagamaan langsung
dapat atau digolongkan ajaran atau merupakan laku spiritual. Ajaran
etika-moral, misalnya, diajarkan pada setiap agama besar di dunia, namun
hingga Batas-Batas tertentu IA bukanlah ajaran spiritual.

Dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, ajaran etika-moral dan suatu agama-lah yang
akan lebih tampak di permukaan, lebih kasat indriya, oleh karena IA
tercermin dalam tingkah-laku dari penganutnya. Ia secara langsung dapat
dirasakan nilai manfaatnya, baik bagi pribadi yang bersangkutan maupun bagi
lingkungan sosial dimana mereka berinteraksi. Di Mata kebanyakan orang,
bahkan ajaran etika-moral itulah yang dinobatkan sebagai keseluruhan dari
ajaran agama itu sendiri. Ungkapan seperti: "Prilakunya sama sekali tidak
mencerminkan prilaku umat beragama" Dan semacamnya, mewakili pandangan
kebanyakan orang terhadap apa ajaran agama itu di mata mereka.

Di kalangan umat Hindu di Indonesia, ajaran etika-moral disebut susila. Ia
merupakan salah-satu dari tiga kerangka landasan utama umat Hindu, dalam
kehidupan religiusnya. Dua kerangka landasan utama lainnya masing-masing
adalah : ritual atau upacara dan ajaran kefilsafatannya sendiri atau tattwa.
Dalam prakteknya, upacara-lah yang tampak menonjol, seperti juga susila
dalam pergaulan sosial. Ajaran kefilsafatannya, disamping memang bersifat
pribadi dan tak tampak dipermukaan, rupanya juga kurang mendapat perhatian
yang proporsional.

Di antara ketiga kerangka landasan utama tadi, dimanakah terkandung ajaran
teori maupun praktek spiritualitas Hindu? Mungkin timbul pertanyaan demikian
di benak Anda. Dalam Hindu ia termaktub dalam ketiganya, dalam derajat
penekanan yang berbeda-beda. Maksudnya, bila dalam susila ia berupa larangan
ataupun anjuran, pengekangan indriya, pengendalian diri, pensucian-diri
serta peraturan tingkah-laku pendukung lainnya, yang dalam praktek spiritual
Yoga, disebut Yama-Niyama, maka dalam upacara termaktub praktek
persembahyangan, upasana, perafalan japa-mantra, pranayama, meditasi atau
dhyana, perenungan suci atau vichara dan lain sebagainya. Dalam tattwa,
jelas termaktub substansi landasan filosofis dan praktek spiritual itu
sendiri, yang juga melandasi ajaran etika-moral hingga praktek ritualnya.

Dalam ceramah bulan Juni 2000- nya, Swami Krishnananda-Sekjen. The Divine
Life Society -- antara lain mengatakan: "Agama dan spiritualitas adalah dua
faktor penentu didalam mencapai nilai kehidupan yang lebih tinggi". Beliau
menyebutkan 'nilai kehidupan' disini, dan bukannya, secara terbatas,
mencapai kesejahteraan hidup ataupun mencapai sorga ataupun menghindari
neraka. 'Nilai kehidupan yang lebih tinggi', mempunyai arti yang jauh lebih
luas, dibandingkan sekedar kesejahteraan hidup di dunia atau masuk sorga
sekalipun.

Pernyataannya itu dilengkapi lagi dengan penjelasan : "Kedua fungsi
panggilan di dalam ini bagi manusia, berkaitan erat dengan kehidupan di
dunia dan kehidupan dalam Tuhan. Hubungan antara dunia dan Tuhan juga adalah
hubungan agama dengan spiritualitas. Disebutkan bahwasanya Tuhan
memanifestasikan Diri-Nya sebagai dunia. Oleh karenanya, dengan cara yang
sama, kita dapat mengatakan bahwa spiritualitas memanifestasikan diri
sebagai agama".

Dengan jelas dapat dipahami dua hal penting sehubungan dengan agama dan
spiritualitas. Yang pertama adalah, bila agama berkaitan erat dengan
kehidupan duniawi, maka spiritualitas justru lebih berkaitan dengan
kehidupan ketuhanan dan realisasi Kesadaran Tuhan itu sendiri. Yang kedua
adalah, spiritualitas mempunyai lingkup yang lebih luas, lebih tinggi, lebih
halus dan transendental ketimbang agama, sejauh agama merupakan manifestasi
dan spiritualitas. Jadi, guna merefleksikan rasa spiritialitas kitalah kita
menganut dan mematuhi ajaran-ajaran agama. Namun dalam kehidupan sehari-hari
seringkali justru kita saksikan yang sebaliknya.

Baik dalam Hindu maupun dalam Buddha, pengertian yang benar' terhadap ajaran
menempati posisi yang sangat penting. Bukan saja dalam praktek religiusitas
saja, dalam kehidupan sehari-haripun sesungguhnya juga demikian. Obat
misalnya, apalagi bila ia adalah obat-keras, tidak akan sepenuhnya
bermanfaat demi kesehatan bilamana kita tak mengetahui bagaimana
aturan-pakainya secara benar. Bila tidak, jangan-jangan kita malahan bisa
overdosis. Sebetulnya banyak contoh-contoh lain untuk dikemukakan disini,
yang dapat kita saksikan kehidupan sehari-hari di lingkungan masing-masing,
sehubungan dengan betapa pentingnya 'pengertian yang benar' dalam kehidupan
sehari-hari.

Dalam agama, dimanakah pengertian yang benar itu bisa kita peroleh? Ia dapat
kita temukan dalam ajaran-ajaran ke-filsafatan-nya, dalam Hindu ia diperoleh
dalam tattwa-tattwa atau darshana-darshana. Seperti telah disebutkan
sebelumnya, kedua kerangka landasan utama Hindu lainnya (susila dan upacara)
secara kokoh berlandas pada ajaran filsafat Hindu itu sendiri. Teks yang
memuat ajaran kefilsafatan Hindu ada banyak jumlahnya. Mereka secara
mengkhusus berupa kitab-kitab Upanishad dan kitab-kitab Darshana, disamping
secara parsial dapat juga ditemukan di dalam bentuk sajian Veda-veda lainnya
seperti : Itihasa, Agama (bukan padan-kata dari religion), Shastrashastra
dan Tattwa. Yang disebutkan terakhir agaknya khas Nusantara.

Dari tinjauan sekilas kita tentang agama dan spiritualitas ini, disamping
kita dapat melihat keterkaitan-eratnya, juga tampak bahwasanya seorang
spiritualis tidaklah secara otomatis dan harus sebagai anggota atau umat
agama terorganisasi tertentu; namun sebaliknya, akan terasa 'kurang' bila
dalam praktek keagamaan umatnya -- hingga batas-batas tertentu -- tidak
mempraktekkan laku spiritual (sadhana) atau menerapkan ajaran spiritualitas
dalam kehidupan beragamanya.•

WHD No. 424 Juni 2002.

Balajar Dari Kegagalan Lalat Dan Kesuksesan Semut

Jika ditanya, adakah kegagalan itu? secara Nalar sehat seseorang akan
menjawabnya dengan serentak, ya adalah..masa sih ga ada yang namanya gagal.

Naahhh..namun di situlah kuncinya.

Gagal dan sukses adalah bagaimana kita mempersepsikan makna gagal dan sukses

Jika seseorang percaya kalau si gagal itu ada , maka ia pasti gagal, tapi
sebaliknya, bila tidak mempercayai kegagalan maka ia akan sukses.

Ada 3 cara seharusnya pikiran memandang sebuah kegagalan :

Pertama, gagal itu tidak ada.

Yang ada hanyalah hasil-hasil yang belum sesuai harapan. Bila saat ini
sedang mengalami kegagalan, anggaplah itu sebagai pijakan kuat dan pelajaran
terbaik untuk langkah berikutnya. Sepanjang masih ada usaha, belum bisa
dikatakan gagal,

Kedua, gagal itu (baca: hasil yang belum sesuai dengan harapan) itu
manusiawi.

Artinya Hanya Tuhan Yang Maha Tidak Pernah Gagal. Dengan kegagalan
menjadikan kita mendekat pada Yang Maha Tidak Pernah Gagal yaitu Tuhan.

Ketiga, gagal itu pelajaran sangat berharga.

Dengan mengalami gagal, bila kita terus berusaha bangkit, kita mendapatkan
banyak pelajaran dalam hidup. Manusia hebat adalah manusia yang mau belajar
dari kegagalannya. Dibalik kegagalan tersimpan sejuta pengalaman hidup yang
tak ternilai harganya.

Trus apa dong hubungannya dengan lalat dengan semut ?

Lalat adalah salah satu binatang yang tidak pernah belajar dari kegagalan
dan tidak berani mencoba cara lain sehingga bisa meraih sukses.
Orang yang gagal sesungguhnya seperti halnya lalat.

Pernahkan anda melihat lalat berusaha keluar dan terhalang oleh sebuah kaca,
sesekali melompat dan menerjang kaca itu, dengan tak kenal menyerah si lalat
mencoba keluar dari kaca itu . Lalat itu merayap mengelilingi kaca dari atas
ke bawah dan dari kiri ke kanan bolak-balik demikian terus dan terus
berulang-ulang. Ia terus membentur-benturkan dirinya tanpa berusaha mencari
jalan keluar.
Hari makin petang si lalat itu nampak kelelahan dan kelaparan dan esok
paginya nampak lalat itu terkulai lemas terkapar di lantai.

Loooh … bukankah lalat itu sudh berusaha ? dia sungguh-sungguh telah
berjuang keras berusaha keluar dari pintu kaca itu namun ketika tak juga
menemukan jalan keluar, dia frustasi dan kelelahan hingga akhirnya jatuh
sekarat .

Pertanyaan nya, kenapa lalat itu gagal walaupun dia sudah berusaha sungguh2
& berusaha keras ?? kenapa tidak berhasil ? apanya yang salah ?

Berulang kali si lalat menggunakan cara-cara yang sama walaupun gagal untuk
dilaluinya.

Akibatnya....?

Lalat akan mati karena karena kehabisan tenaga dan mubazir menggunakan
potensi dirinya.

Hal ini sangat berbeda jika kita melihat semut.....
Pernah liat semut saat dia terhalang mencapai tujuan nya?
Semut selalu berusaha mencari alternatif-alternatif jalan untuk meraih
tujuannya. Jika terhalang maka ia akan berusaha mencari jalan terbaik dan
terdekat baginya untuk memperoleh apa yang menjadi tujuannya.

Bagaimana dengan anda dalam menyikapi hambatan..? mau berusaha seperti lalat
yang tak kenal menyerah dan telah mencoba berulang kali, hanya saja dia
melakukannya dengan cara-cara yang sama, atau seperti semut yang selalu
berusaha mencari jalan terbaik, merubah arah dan cara.

Pilihan ada pada diri anda sendiri

Salam

Irma Sustika

http://irmasustika.blogspot.com

Montevideo, Uruguay

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Montevideo is the largest city, the capital, and the chief port of Uruguay.
Montevideo is the only city in the country with a population over 1,000,000.

According to Mercer Human Resource Consulting, in 2007 Montevideo provided
the highest quality of life in Latin America.

Geography

Montevideo is situated in the south of the country, The geographic
coordinates are 34.5° S, 56°W.

18 de Julio is the city's main avenue and extends from the Plaza
Independencia, which is the junction between the Ciudad Vieja (the
historical quarter) and the rest of the city, to the boundary between the
neighborhoods of Cordón and Parque Batlle.

History

Early history

In spite of its excellent location, the city of Montevideo was established
only in 1726, mainly as a base to defend the eastern province of Virreinato
del Río de la Plata from Portuguese incursions. A few years after its
foundation, Montevideo became the main city of the region north of the Río
de la Plata and east of the Uruguay River, competing with Buenos Aires for
dominance in maritime commerce.

In 1776, Spain made Montevideo its main naval base (Real Apostadero de
Marina) for the South Atlantic, with authority over the Argentine coast,
Fernando Po, and the Falklands.

At different periods of their history, Montevideo and Buenos Ayres had
resisted successfully the attacks of the fleets and armies of more than half

the nations of Europe. The city fell under heavy British influence from the
early 19th century until the early 20th century as a way to circumvent
Argentine and Brazilian commercial control.
In the year 1811, the forces deployed by the Junta Grande of Buenos Aires
and the gaucho forces led by José Artigas had started a siege to the city of

Montevideo, which had refused to obey the directives of the new authorities
after the May Revolution. The siege had been lifted at the end of that year,

when the military situation started to deteriorate in the Upper Peru. It was

briefly occupied by Britain in 1807, and it was repeatedly besieged by
Blanco leader Manuel Oribe and Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas
between 1838 and 1851. Between 1878 and 1911, British-owned railway
companies built an extensive railway network linking the city and its port
to the countryside.

20th century

During World War II, a famous incident involving the German pocket
battleship Admiral Graf Spee took place in Punta del Este, 200 kilometres
(120 mi) from Montevideo. After the Battle of the River Plate with the Royal

Navy and Royal New Zealand Navy on December 13, 1939, the Graf Spee
retreated to Montevideo's port, which was considered neutral at the time. To

avoid risking the crew in what he thought would be a losing battle, Captain
Hans Langsdorff scuttled the ship on December 17. Langsdorff committed
suicide two days later.

On 10 February 2006, the eagle figurehead of the Admiral Graf Spee was
salvaged. To protect the feelings of those still sensitive to Nazi Germany,
the swastika on the figurehead was covered as it was pulled from the water.

Culture

Montevideo has a very rich architectural heritage and an impressive number of writers, artists, and musicians. Uruguayan tango is a unique form of dance that originated in the neighborhoods of Montevideo towards the end of the 1800s. Tango, candombe and murga are the three main styles of music in this city.

Buenos Aires, Argentina

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Buenos Aires is the capital, and largest city, of Argentina, currently the

second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after São Paulo. It is located on the western shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent. The city of Buenos Aires is not part of Buenos Aires Province, nor is it its capital; rather, it is an autonomous federal district. Greater Buenos Aires is the third-largest conurbation in Latin America, with a population of around 13 million. 

Buenos Aires is considered an Alpha World City listed by the Loughborough University group's (GaWC) 2008 inventory.

After the internal conflicts of the 19th century, Buenos Aires was federalised and removed from Buenos Aires Province in 1880. The city limits were enlarged to include the former towns of Belgrano and Flores, which are both now neighbourhoods of the city.

Buenos Aires (English: Fair Winds or Good Air (see Names of Buenos Aires)) was originally named after the sanctuary of "Nostra Signora di Bonaria" (Italian for "Our Lady of Bonaria") in Cagliari, Sardinia. In the 1994 constitution the city became autonomous, hence its formal name: Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, in English, Autonomous City of Buenos Aires.

People from Buenos Aires are referred to as porteños (people of the port).

History

First Settlement

Seaman Juan Díaz de Solís, navigating in the name of Spain, was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata in 1516. His expedition was cut short when he was killed during an attack by the native Charrúa tribe in what is now Uruguay.

The city of Buenos Aires was first established as Ciudad de Nuestra Señora Santa María del Buen Ayre (literally "City of Our Lady Saint Mary of the Fair Winds") on 2 February 1536 by a Spanish expedition led by Pedro de Mendoza. The settlement founded by Mendoza was located in what is today the

San Telmo district of Buenos Aires, south of the city center.

More attacks by the indigenous peoples forced the settlers away, and in 1541 the site was abandoned. A second (and permanent) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who arrived by sailing down the Paraná River from Asunción (now the capital of Paraguay). He dubbed the settlement "Santísima Trinidad" and its port became "Puerto de Santa María de los Buenos Aires."

Colonial History

From its earliest days, Buenos Aires depended primarily on trade. During

most of the 17th and 18th centuries, Spain insisted that all trade to Europe

pass through Lima, Peru so that taxes could be collected. This scheme

frustrated the traders of Buenos Aires, and a thriving contraband industry

developed. This also instilled a deep resentment in porteños towards the

Spanish authorities.

Sensing these feelings, Charles III of Spain progressively eased the trade

restrictions and finally declared Buenos Aires an open port in the late

1700s. The capture of Porto Bello by British forces also fueled the need to

foster commerce via the Atlantic route, to the detriment of Lima-based trade

Charles's placating actions did not have the desired effect, and the

porteños, some of them versed in the ideology of the French Revolution,

became even more convinced of the need for Independence from Spain.

During the British invasions of the Río de la Plata, British forces attacked

Buenos Aires twice, in 1806 and 1807, but were repelled both times by local

militias. Ultimately, on 25 May 1810, while Spain was occupied with the

Peninsular War and after a week of mostly peaceful demonstrations, the

criollo citizens of Buenos Aires successfully ousted the Spanish Viceroy and

established a provisional government. 25 May is now celebrated as a national

holiday (May Revolution Day). Formal independence from Spain was declared in

1816.

Historically, Buenos Aires has been Argentina's main venue for liberal and

free-trade ideas, while many of the provinces, especially to the northwest,

advocated a more conservative Catholic approach to political and social

issues. Much of the internal tension in Argentina's history, starting with

the centralist-federalist conflicts of the 19th century, can be traced back

to these contrasting views. In the months immediately following the 25 May

Revolution, Buenos Aires sent a number of military envoys to the provinces

with the intention of obtaining their approval. Many of these missions ended

in violent clashes, and the enterprise fueled the tensions between the

capital and the provinces.

In the 19th century the city was blockaded twice by naval forces: by the

French from 1838 to 1840, and later by a joint Anglo-French expedition from

1845 to 1848. Both blockades failed to force the city into submission, and

the foreign powers eventually desisted from their demands.

Modern History

During most of the 19th century, the political status of the city remained a

sensitive subject. It was already capital of Buenos Aires Province, and

between 1853 and 1860 it was the capital of the seceded State of Buenos

Aires. The issue was fought out more than once on the battlefield, until the

matter was finally settled in 1880 when the city was federalised and became

the seat of government, with its Mayor appointed by the President. The Casa

Rosada became the seat of the President.

In addition to the wealth generated by the fertile pampas, railroad

construction in the second half of the 19th century increased the economic

power of Buenos Aires as raw materials flowed into its factories. Buenos

Aires became a multicultural city that ranked itself with the major European

capitals. The Colón Theater became one of the world's top opera venues. The

city's main avenues were built during those years, and the dawn of the 20th

century saw the construction of South America's then-tallest buildings and

first underground system.

By the 1920s Buenos Aires was a favoured destination for immigrants from

Europe, particularly Spain and Italy, as well as from Argentina's provinces

and neighbouring countries. Shanty towns (villas miseria) started growing

around the city's industrial areas during the 1930s, leading to pervasive

social problems which contrasted sharply with Argentina's image as a country

of riches. A second construction boom from 1945 to 1980 reshaped downtown

and much of the city.

Buenos Aires was the cradle of Peronism: the now-mythologized demonstration

of 17 October 1945 took place in Plaza de Mayo. Industrial workers of the

Greater Buenos Aires industrial belt have been Peronism's main support base

ever since, and Plaza de Mayo became the site for demonstrations and many of

the country's political events; on 16 June 1955, however, a splinter faction

of the Navy bombed the Plaza de Mayo area, killing 364 civilians (see

Bombing of Plaza de Mayo). This was the only time the city was attacked from

the air, and the event was followed by a military uprising which deposed

President Perón, three months later.

In the 1970s the city suffered from the fighting between left-wing

revolutionary movements (Montoneros, E.R.P. and F.A.R.) and the right-wing

paramilitary group Triple A, supported by Isabel Perón, who became president

of Argentina in 1974 after Juan Perón's death.

The military coup of 1976, led by Jorge Rafael Videla, only escalated this

conflict; the "Dirty War" resulted in 30,000 desaparecidos (people kidnapped

and killed by the military during the years of the junta). The silent

marches of their mothers (Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo) are a well-known

image of Argentines suffering during those times.

The dictatorship also drew up plans for a network of freeways intended to

relieve the city's acute traffic gridlock. The plan, however, called for a

seemingly indiscriminate razing of residential areas and, though only three

of the eight planned were put up at the time, they were mostly obtrusive

raised freeways that continue to blight a number of formerly comfortable

neighborhoods to this day.

The city was visited by Pope John Paul II twice: in 1982, due to the

outbreak of the Falklands War (Spanish: Guerra de las Malvinas/Guerra del

Atlántico Sur), and a second visit in 1987, which gathered crowds never

before seen in the city.

On 17 March 1992 a bomb exploded in the Israeli Embassy, killing 29 and

injuring 242. Another explosion, on 18 July 1994 destroyed a building

housing several Jewish organizations, killing 85 and injuring many more,

these incidents marked the beginning of Middle Eastern terrorism to South

America.

Following a 1993 agreement, the Argentine Constitution was amended to give

Buenos Aires autonomy and rescinding, among other things, the president's

right to appoint the city's mayor (as had been the case since 1880). On 30

June 1996, voters in Buenos Aires chose their first elected mayor (Chief of

Government).

On 30 December 2004 a fire at the República Cromagnon nightclub killed

almost 200 people, one of the greatest non-natural tragedies in Argentine

history.

Religion

Most inhabitants are Roman Catholic, though a number of studies over the

past few decades suggest that fewer than 20% are actively practicing. Buenos

Aires is the seat of a Roman Catholic metropolitan archbishop (the Catholic

primate of Argentina), currently Jorge Cardinal Bergoglio. There are

Protestant, Orthodox Christian, Muslim, and Jewish minorities.

Geography

The limits of Buenos Aires proper are determined in the eastern part and

north-east by the Rio de la Plata, in the southern part and southeast by the

Riachuelo and to the northwest, west and Southwest by Avenida General Paz, a

24-kilometer (15 mi) long highway that separates the province of Buenos

Aires from the city.

The city of Buenos Aires lies in the pampa region, except for some zones

like the Buenos Aires Ecological Reserve, the Boca Juniors (football) Club

sports city", Jorge Newbery Airport, the Puerto Madero neighborhood and the

main port itself; these were all built on reclaimed land along the coasts of

the Rio de la Plata (the world's largest estuary).

The region was formerly crossed by different creeks and lagoons, some of

which were refilled and others tubed. Among the most important creeks are

Maldonado, Vega, Medrano, Cildañez and White. In 1908 many creeks were

channeled and rectified, as floods were damaging the city's infrastructure.

Starting in 1919, most creeks were enclosed. Notably, the Maldonado was

tubed in 1954, and currently runs below Juan B. Justo Avenue.

Economy

Buenos Aires is the financial, industrial, commercial, and cultural hub of

Argentina. Its port is one of the busiest in South America; navigable rivers

by way of the Rio de la Plata connect the port to north-east Argentina,

Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay. As a result it serves as the distribution hub

for a vast area of the south-eastern region of the continent. Tax collection

related to the port has caused many political problems in the past.

The economy in the city proper alone, measured by Gross Geographic Product

(adjusted for purchasing power), totalled US$ 84.7 billion (US$ 28,200 per

capita) in 2006 and amounts to nearly a quarter of Argentina's as a whole.

Metro Buenos Aires, according to one well-quoted study, constitutes the 13th

largest economy among the world's cities. The Buenos Aires Human Development

Index (0.923 in 1998) is likewise high by international standards.

To the west of Buenos Aires is the Pampa Húmeda, the most productive

agricultural region of Argentina produces wheat, soybeans and corn (as

opposed to the dry southern Pampa, mostly used for cattle farming and more

recently production of premium Buenos Aires wines). Meat, dairy, grain,

tobacco, wool and leather products are processed or manufactured in the

Buenos Aires metro area. Other leading industries are automobile

manufacturing, oil refining, metalworking, machine building and the

production of textiles, chemicals, clothing and beverages.

Culture

Strongly influenced by European culture, Buenos Aires is sometimes referred

to as the "Paris of South America".

Buenos Aires is the site of the Teatro Colón, one of the world's greatest

opera houses. It is closed for renovations until at least 2010. There are

several symphony orchestras and choral societies. The city has numerous

museums related to history, fine arts, modern arts, decorative arts, popular

arts, sacred art, arts and crafts, theatre and popular music, as well as the

preserved homes of noted art collectors, writers, composers and artists. The

city is home to hundreds of bookstores, public libraries and cultural

associations, as well as the largest concentration of active theatres in

Latin America. It has a world-famous zoo and Botanical Garden, a large

number of landscaped parks and squares, as well as churches and places of

worship of many denominations, many of which are architecturally noteworthy.

Language

Known as Rioplatense Spanish, Buenos Aires' Spanish (as that of other cities

like Rosario and Montevideo, Uruguay) is characterised by voseo, yeísmo and

aspiration of s in various contexts. It is heavily influenced by the

dialects of Spanish spoken in Andalusia and Murcia. A phonetic study

conducted by the Laboratory for Sensory Investigations of CONICET and the

University of Toronto showed that the prosody of porteño is closer to the

Neapolitan language of Italy than to any other spoken language.

In the early 20th century, Argentina absorbed millions of immigrants, many

of them Italians, who spoke mostly in their local dialects (mainly

Neapolitan, Sicilian and Genoan). Their adoption of Spanish was gradual,

creating a pidgin of Italian dialects and Spanish that was called cocoliche.

Its usage declined around the 1950s.

Many Spanish immigrants were from Galicia, and Spaniards are still

generically referred to in Argentina as gallegos (Galicians). Galician

language, cuisine and culture had a major presence in the city for most of

the 20th century. In recent years, descendants of Galician immigrants have

led a mini-boom in Celtic music (which also highlighted the Welsh traditions

of Patagonia).

Yiddish was commonly heard in Buenos Aires, especially in the Balvanera

garment district and in Villa Crespo until the 1960s. Korean and Chinese

have become significant since the 1970s. Most of the newer immigrants learn

Spanish quickly and assimilate into city life.

The Lunfardo argot originated within the prison population, and in time

spread to all porteños. Lunfardo uses words from Italian dialects, from

Brazilian Portuguese, from African and Caribbean languages and even from

English. Lunfardo employs humorous tricks such as inverting the syllables

within a word (vesre). Today, Lunfardo is mostly heard in tango lyrics; the

slang of the younger generations has been evolving away from it.

Tango

Tango music was born in the suburbs of Buenos Aires, notably in the brothels

of the Junín y Lavalle district and in the arrabales (poorer suburbs). Its

sensual dance moves were not seen as respectable until adopted by the

Parisian high society in the 1920s, and then all over the world. In Buenos

Aires, tango-dancing schools (known as academias) were usually men-only

establishments.

Tango consists of a variety of styles that developed in different regions

and eras of Argentina and Uruguay as well as in other locations around the

world. The dance developed in response to many cultural elements, such as

the crowding of the venue and even the fashions in clothing. The styles are

mostly danced in either open embrace, where lead and follow connect at arms

length, or close embrace, where the lead and follow connect chest-to-chest.

Early tango was known as tango criollo, or simply tango. Today, there are

many tango dance styles, including Argentine tango, Uruguayan tango,

Ballroom tango (American and International styles), Finnish tango and

vintage tangos.

Notable Streets and Avenues

* Avenida Alvear (the avenue passes through the upscale Recoleta area

and is the address for a number of five-star hotels and embassies, many of

them former mansions)

* Caminito (colorfully restored by local artist Benito Quinquela Martín)

* Avenida Corrientes (a principal thoroughfare in Buenos Aires, the

avenue is intimately tied to the Tango and Porteño culture)

* Avenida del Libertador (this avenue connects downtown to upscale areas

to the northwest, passing by many of the city's best-known museums, gardens

and cultural points of interest)

* Avenida de Mayo (the avenue is often compared with those of Madrid,

Barcelona and Paris for its sophisticated buildings of Art Nouveau,

Neoclassic and eclectic styles)

* Florida Street (an elegant pedestrian street, downtown)

* Avenida 9 de Julio (one of the widest avenues in the World, its name honors Argentina's Independence Day)

Stanley, Falkland Islands

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Falkland Islands are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean, located
about 300 mi (480 km) from the coast of mainland South America, 700 mi (1
100 km) from mainland Antarctica, and 3,800 mi (6,100 km) from Africa. The
two main islands are East Falkland and West Falkland, and there are 776
smaller islands. The islands are a self-governing Overseas Territory of the
United Kingdom. Stanley, on East Falkland, is the capital.

Ever since the re-establishment of British rule in 1833 Argentina has
claimed sovereignty. In pursuit of this claim, which is rejected by the
islanders, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands in 1982. This precipitated
the two-month-long undeclared Falklands War between Argentina and the United
Kingdom and resulted in the defeat and withdrawal of the Argentine forces.

Since the war, there has been strong economic growth in both fisheries and
tourism.

Name

The English name for the islands, the "Falkland Islands", derives from the
English mariner John Strong, who in 1690 named the channel between the two
main islands "Falkland Sound" after his patron, Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount
Falkland and this name was later extended to the island group. The Spanish
name, Islas Malvinas, is derived from the French name, "Îles Malouines",
named by Louis Antoine de Bougainville in 1764 after the first known
settlers, mariners and fishermen from the Breton port of Saint-Malo in
France. The ISO designation is "Falkland Islands (Malvinas)".

As a result of the continuing sovereignty dispute, the use of many Spanish
names is considered offensive in the Falkland Islands, particularly those
associated with the 1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands. General Sir
Jeremy Moore would not allow the use of Islas Malvinas in the surrender
document, dismissing it as a propaganda term.

History

The islands were uninhabited when they were first discovered by European
explorers but there is evidence that Patagonian Indians may have reached the
Falklands in canoes. Artifacts including arrowheads and the remains of a
canoe have been found on the islands. There is also the presence of the
Falkland Island fox or Warrah (now extinct) but they may have reached the
islands via a land bridge when the sea level was much lower during the last
ice age. A group of islands in Falkland Island region appeared on maps from
the early 16th century, suggesting either Ferdinand Magellan or another
expedition of the 1500s may have sighted them. Amerigo Vespucci may have
sighted the islands in 1502, but he did not name them. In 1519 or 1520,
Esteban Gómez, a captain in Magellan's expedition, encountered several
islands. Members of his crew called them "Islas de Sansón y de los Patos" (
Islands of Samson and the Ducks"). These islands were probably the Jason
Islands, northwest of West Falkland, but the names "Islas de Sansón" (or
San Antón," "San Son," and "Ascensión") were used for the Falklands on
Spanish maps during this period. Peri Reis, a Turkish admiral of the period
who drew remarkably accurate maps, also showed islands on his maps that may
well have been the Falkland Islands.

There is some dispute as to the first European explorer to sight the islands
The islands appear on numerous Spanish and other maps beginning in the
1520s. The English explorer, John Davis, commander of the Desire, one of the
ships belonging to Thomas Cavendish's second expedition to the New World, is
recorded as having visited the islands in 1592. He was separated from
Cavendish off the coast of what is now southern Argentina by a severe storm
and discovered the islands. For a while the islands were known as "Davis
Land". In 1594, the English commander Richard Hawkins, visited the islands.
Combining his own name with that of Queen Elizabeth I, the "Virgin Queen",
he gave the islands the name of "Hawkins' Maidenland." Many give the credit
to the Dutchman Sebald de Weert, a Dutch sailor, who discovered the islands
in 1600.

In January 1690, English sailor John Strong, captain of the Welfare, was
heading for Puerto Deseado (now in Argentina); but driven off course by
contrary winds, he reached the Sebald Islands instead and landed at Bold
Cove. He sailed between the two principal islands and called the passage
Falkland Channel" (now Falkland Sound), after Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount
Falkland, who as Commissioner of the Admiralty had financed the expedition
(Cary later became First Lord of the Admiralty). The island group later took
its English name from this body of water.

Since their discovery, the Falkland Islands have had a complex history.
France, Britain, Spain, and Argentina have all claimed possession at some
time, and have established and abandoned settlements on the islands. The
Falklands Crisis of 1770 was nearly the cause of a war between a
Franco-Spanish Alliance and Britain. Argentina took over and continued the
Spanish government's claim after its declaration of independence in 1816 and
the independence war in 1817. The American sloop USS Lexington destroyed the
Argentine settlement at Port Louis on 28 December 1831 and the United
Kingdom returned to the islands in 1833. Argentina has continued to claim
sovereignty over the islands, and in 1982 a military junta used the dispute
as a pretext to invade and briefly occupy the islands. A United Kingdom task
force defeated the occupying troops and returned the islands to British
control in the two-month-long Falklands War.

The first settlement on the Falkland Islands was in 1764. It was called Port
St. Louis and was founded by the French navigator and military commander
Louis Antoine de Bougainville on Berkeley Sound, in present-day Port Louis,
East Falkland.

In January 1765, the British captain John Byron, unaware of the French
presence, explored and claimed Saunders Island, at the western end of the
group, where he named the harbour of Port Egmont. He sailed near other
islands, which he also claimed for King George III. A British settlement was
built at Port Egmont in 1766. Also in 1766, Spain acquired the French colony
and after assuming effective control in 1767, placed the islands under a
governor subordinate to the Buenos Aires colonial administration. Spain
attacked Port Egmont, ending the British presence there in 1770. The
expulsion of the British settlement brought the two countries to the brink
of war, but a peace treaty allowed the British to return to Port Egmont in
1771 with neither side relinquishing sovereignty.

As a result of economic pressures resulting from the forthcoming American
Revolutionary War, the United Kingdom decided to withdraw unilaterally from
many of her overseas settlements, including Port Egmont, in 1774. Upon her
withdrawal in 1776 the UK left behind a plaque asserting her claims. From
1776 until 1811 Spain maintained a settlement administered from Buenos Aires
as part of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. On leaving in 1811, Spain
also left behind a plaque asserting her claims.

On 6 November 1820, Colonel David Jewett raised the flag of the United
Provinces of the River Plate (Argentina) at Port Louis. Jewett was an
American sailor and privateer in the employment of Buenos Aires businessman
Patrick Lynch to captain his ship, the frigate Heroína (Lynch had obtained a
corsair licence from the Buenos Aires Supreme Director Jose Rondeau). Jewett
had put into the islands the previous month, following a disastrous eight
month voyage with most of his crew disabled by scurvy and disease. After
resting in the islands and repairing his ship he returned to Buenos Aires.

Occupation began in 1828 with the foundation of a settlement and a penal
colony. United States warships destroyed this settlement in 1831 after the
Argentine governor of the islands Luis Vernet seized US seal hunting ships
during a dispute over fishing rights. Escaped prisoners and pirates were
left behind. In November 1832, Argentina sent another governor who was
killed in a mutiny.

In January 1833, British forces returned and informed the Argentine
commander that they intended to reassert British sovereignty. The existing
settlers were allowed to remain, with an Irish member of Vernet's settlement
William Dickson, appointed as the Islands' governor. Vernet's deputy,
Matthew Brisbane, returned later that year and was informed that the British
had no objections to the continuation of Vernet's business ventures provided
there was no interference with British control.

The Royal Navy built a base at Stanley, and the islands became a strategic
point for navigation around Cape Horn. A World War I naval battle, the
Battle of Falkland Islands, took place in December 1914, with a British
victory over the Germans. During World War II, Stanley served as a Royal
Navy station and serviced ships which took part in the Battle of the River
Plate.

Sovereignty over the islands again became an issue in the latter half of the
20th century. Argentina, in the pursuit of its claim to the islands, saw the
creation of the United Nations as an opportunity to present its case before
the rest of the world. In 1945, upon signing the UN Charter, Argentina
stated that it reserved its right to sovereignty of the islands, as well as
its right to recover them. The United Kingdom responded in turn by stating
that, as an essential precondition for the fulfilment of UN Resolution 1514
(XV) regarding the de-colonisation of all territories still under foreign
occupation, the Falklanders first had to vote for the British withdrawal at
a referendum to be held on the issue.

Talks between British and Argentine foreign missions took place in the 1960s
but failed to come to any meaningful conclusion. A major sticking point in
all the negotiations was that the two thousand inhabitants of mainly British
descent preferred that the islands remain British territory.

Former Argentine links

There were no air links to the islands until 1971, when the Argentine Air
Force (FAA), which operates the state airline LADE, began amphibious flights
between Comodoro Rivadavia and Stanley using Grumman HU-16 Albatross
aircraft. Following a FAA request, the UK and Argentina reached an agreement
for the FAA to construct the first runway. Flights began using Fokker F27
and continued with Fokker F28 aircraft twice a week until 1982. This was the
only air link to the islands. YPF, the Argentine national oil and gas
company, now part of Repsol YPF, supplied the islands' energy needs.

Falklands War

On 2 April 1982, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands and other British
territories in the South Atlantic (South Georgia and the South Sandwich
Islands). The military junta which had ruled Argentina since 1976 sought to
maintain power by diverting public attention from the nation's poor economic
performance and exploiting the long-standing feelings of the Argentines
towards the islands. Several British writers hold that the United Kingdom's
reduction in military capacity in the South Atlantic also encouraged the
invasion.

The United Nations Security Council issued Resolution 502, calling on
Argentina to withdraw forces from the Islands and for both parties to seek a
diplomatic solution. International reaction ranged from support for
Argentina in Latin American countries (except Chile and Colombia), to
opposition in the Commonwealth and Europe (apart from Spain), and eventually
the United States.

The British sent an expeditionary force to retake the islands, leading to
the Falklands War. After short but fierce naval and air battles, the British
landed at San Carlos Water on 21 May, and a land campaign followed until the
Argentine forces surrendered on 14 June 1982.

After the war, the British increased their military presence on the islands,
constructing RAF Mount Pleasant and increasing the military garrison.
Although the United Kingdom and Argentina resumed diplomatic relations in
1992, no further negotiations on sovereignty have taken place.

Politics

Executive authority is vested in the Queen and is exercised by the Governor
on her behalf. The Governor is also responsible for the administration of
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, as these islands have no
native inhabitants. Defence and Foreign Affairs are the responsibility of
the United Kingdom. The current Governor is Alan Huckle, appointed July 2006

Under the constitution, which came into force on 1 January 2009 (which
replaced the 1985 constitution), there is an Executive Council and a
Legislative Assembly of the Falkland Islands. The Executive Council, which
advises the Governor, is also chaired by the Governor. It consists of the
Chief Executive, Financial Secretary and three Legislative Councillors, who
are elected by the other Legislative Councillors.

The Legislative Council consists of the Chief Executive, Financial Secretary
and the eight Legislative Councillors, of whom five are elected from Stanley
and three from Camp, for four-year terms. It is presided over by the Speaker
currently Keith Biles.

Relations with Argentina

The dispute over control of the islands has continued since the war.
Diplomatic relations between Argentina and the UK were resumed in 1992, and
embassies were reopened in London and Buenos Aires. In 1994, Argentina added
its claim to the islands to the Argentine constitution, stating that this
claim must be pursued in a manner "respectful of the way of life of their
inhabitants and according to the principles of international law".

Falkland Islanders were granted full British citizenship from 1 January 1983
under the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983. As Argentina
considers the Falklands to be Argentine territory, they also consider the
Falkland Islanders to be Argentine citizens through the system of jus soli
operated under Argentine nationality law, though this is rejected by the
islanders themselves.

In 1998, in retaliation for the arrest in London of the former Chilean
president Augusto Pinochet, the Chilean government banned flights between
Punta Arenas and Port Stanley, thus isolating the islands from the rest of
the world. Uruguay and Brazil refused to authorise direct flights between
their territories and Port Stanley. This forced the Islands' government to
enter negotiations with the Argentine government and led to Argentina
authorising direct flights between its territory and Stanley, on condition
that Argentine citizens be allowed on the islands. One flight a month,
operated by LAN Airlines, travels between RAF Mount Pleasant on East
Falkland and Río Gallegos in Santa Cruz Province, Argentina.

Since the war, successive Argentine governments have stated their intention
to pursue their claim to the islands by peaceful means. On the 22nd
anniversary of the war, Argentina's President Néstor Kirchner gave a speech
insisting that the islands would become part of Argentina. Kirchner,
campaigning for president in 2003, regarded the islands as a top priority.
In June 2003 the issue was brought before a United Nations committee, and
attempts have been made to open talks with the United Kingdom to resolve the
issue of the islands.

In 2007 (exactly 25 years after the Argentine invasion), Argentina renewed
its claim over the Falkland Islands, asking for the UK to resume talks on
sovereignty. In March 2009, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown stated in a
meeting with Argentine President Cristina Fernández that there would be no
talks over the future sovereignty of the Falkland Islands. As far as the
governments of the UK and of the Falkland Islands are concerned, there is no
issue to resolve. The Falkland Islanders themselves are almost entirely
British and maintain their allegiance to the United Kingdom.

On 22 September 2007, The Guardian reported the UK government was preparing
to stake new claims on the sea floor around the Falklands and other UK
remote island possessions, in order to exploit natural resources that may be
present. In October 2007, a British spokeswoman confirmed that Britain
intended to submit a claim to the UN to extend seabed territory around the
Falklands and South Georgia, in advance of the expiry of the deadline for
territorial claims following Britain's ratification of the 1982 Law of the
Sea Convention. If the claim is disputed, the UN will suspend the claim
until the dispute is settled. The claim is largely theoretical and does not
affect the Antarctic Treaty or confer new rights upon Britain. Neither does
it permit the exploitation of oil or gas reserves, since these are banned by
a protocol to the treaty. It would enable Britain to police fishing within
the zone to prevent over exploitation of natural resources by commercial
fishing in line with Britain's obligations under the treaty. Nevertheless
many commentators have criticised the move for going against the spirit of
the Antarctic Treaty. Argentina has indicated it will challenge any British
claim to Antarctic territory and the area around the Falkland Islands and
South Georgia. Argentina made a similar claim in 2009, and the United
Kingdom quickly protested these claims.

Geography and ecology

The Falkland Islands comprise two main islands, East Falkland and West
Falkland (in Spanish Isla Gran Malvina and Isla Soledad respectively), and
about 776 small islands.The islands are located 212 miles (341 km) from the
Isla de los Estados in Argentina (and 287 miles (462 km) from the Argentine
mainland); 304 miles (489 km) from Chile; 669 miles (1,077 km) west of the
Shag Rocks (South Georgia) and 576 miles (927 km) north of the British
Antarctic Territory (which overlaps with the Argentine and Chilean claims to
Antarctica in that region).

The total land area is 4,700 square miles (12,173 km2), slightly smaller
than Connecticut or Northern Ireland, with a coastline estimated at 800
miles (1288 km).

The two main islands on either side of Falkland Sound make up most of the
land. These are East Falkland, which contains the capital, Stanley, and most
of the population; and West Falkland. Both islands have mountain ranges, the
highest point being Mount Usborne, 2312 feet (705 m) on East Falkland. There
are also some boggy plains, most notably in Lafonia, on the southern half of
East Falkland. Virtually the entire area of the islands is used as pasture
for sheep.

Smaller islands surround the main two. They include Barren Island, Beaver
Island, Bleaker Island, Carcass Island, George Island, Keppel Island, Lively
Island, New Island, Pebble Island, Saunders Island, Sealion Island,
Speedwell Island, Staats Island, Weddell Island, and West Point Island. The
Jason Islands lie to the north west of the main archipelago, and Beauchene
Island some distance to its south. Speedwell Island and George Island are
split from East Falkland by Eagle Passage.

Numerous flora and fauna are found on the Falkland Islands. Notable fauna
include colonies of the Magellanic Penguin.

The islands claim a territorial sea of 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) and
an exclusive fishing zone of 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi), which has
been a source of disagreement with Argentina.

Biogeographically, the Falkland Islands are classified as part of the
Neotropical realm, together with South America. It is also classified as
part of the Antarctic Floristic Kingdom.

Climate

Surrounded by cool South Atlantic waters, the Falkland Islands have a
climate very much influenced by the ocean with a narrow annual temperature
range. January averages about 51°F (11°C), with average daily high of 58°F
(14°C), while July averages about 37°F (3°C) with average daily high 40°F
(4°C). Average annual rainfall is 22.58 in (573.6mm). Humidity and winds,
however, are constantly high. Snow is rare, but can occur at almost any time
of year.

Economy

Sheep farming was formerly the main source of income for the islands and
still plays an important part with high quality wool exports going to the
UK: according to the Falklands Islands Meat Company there are more than 500
000 sheep on the islands. Since 1984, efforts to diversify the economy have
made fishing the largest part of the economy and brought increasing income
from tourism.

The government sale of fishing licences to foreign countries has brought in
more than £40 million a year in revenues, and local fishing boats are also
in operation. More than 75% of the fish taken are squid, and most exports
are to Spain. Tourism has grown rapidly, with more than 36,000 visitors in
2004. The islands have become a regular port of call for the growing market
of cruise ships. Attractions include the scenery and wildlife conservation
with penguins, seabirds, seals and sealions, as well as visits to
battlefields, golf, fishing and wreck diving.

An agreement with Argentina had set the terms for exploitation of offshore
resources including large oil reserves; however, in 2007 Argentina
unilaterally withdrew from the agreement. In response, Falklands Oil and Gas
Limited has signed an agreement with BHP Billiton to investigate the
potential exploitation of oil reserves. Climatic conditions of the southern
seas mean that exploitation will be a difficult task, though economically
viable, and the continuing sovereignty dispute with Argentina is hampering
progress.

The UK provides defence and British military expenditures make a significant
contribution to the economy. Except for defence, the islands are self
sufficient; exports account for more than $125 million a year.

The largest company in the islands used to be the Falkland Islands Company
(FIC), a publicly quoted company on the London Stock Exchange. The company
was responsible for the majority of the economic activity on the islands,
though its farms were sold in 1991 to the Falkland Islands Government. The
company now operates several retail outlets in Stanley and is involved in
port services and shipping operations.

The local currency is the Falkland Islands pound, which is in parity with
the pound sterling. Sterling notes and coins circulate interchangeably with
the local currency. The Falkland Islands also mint their own coins, and
issue stamps, which are a source of revenue from overseas collectors.

Demographics

The population is 3,140 (July 2008 est.), about 70 per cent of whom are of
British descent, primarily as a result of Scottish and Welsh immigration to
the islands. The native-born inhabitants call themselves "Islanders";
Kelpers", from the kelp which grows profusely around the islands, is no
longer used in the Islands. People from the United Kingdom who have obtained
Falkland Island status are known locally as 'belongers'.

A few Islanders are of French, Gibraltarian (such as the Pitaluga family),
Portuguese and Scandinavian descent. Some are the descendants of whalers who
reached the Islands during the last two centuries. There is also a small
minority of South Americans, mainly Chilean origin, and in more recent times
many people from Saint Helena have also come to work and live in the Islands

The main religion is Christianity. The main denominations are Church of
England, Roman Catholic, United Free Church, and Lutheran. Smaller numbers
are Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventists and Greek Orthodox; with the
latter being due to Greek fishermen passing through. There is also a Bahá'í
congregation. The Islands are the home of the Apostolic Prefecture of the
Falkland Islands.

Since the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983 the islanders have
been full British citizens. Under Argentine Law they are eligible for
Argentine citizenship, but due to the Falkland Islands' rejection of the
Argentine claim to sovereignty this is dismissed by most Islanders.

Medical care

The Falkland Islands Government Health and Social Services Department
provides medical care for the islands. The King Edward VII Memorial Hospital
(KEMH) is Stanley's only hospital. It was partially military operated in the
past but is now under complete civilian control. There are no
ophthalmologists or opticians on the islands, although an optician from the
United Kingdom visits about every six months and an ophthalmologist comes to
do cataract surgery and eye examinations on irregular intervals (once every
few years). There are two dentists on the islands.

Transport

The Falkland Islands have two airports with paved runways. The main
international airport is RAF Mount Pleasant, 23 miles (37 km) west of
Stanley. Weekly flights are available to and from Santiago, Chile, via Punta
Arenas, operated by LAN Airlines. Once a month, this flight also stops in
Río Gallegos, Argentina.

The Royal Air Force operates flights from RAF Mount Pleasant to RAF Brize
Norton in Oxfordshire, England with a refuelling stop at RAF Ascension
Island. RAF flights are on TriStars although charter aircraft are often used
if the TriStars are required for operational flights. At present Omni Air
International operates the RAF air link, using DC-10s. British International
(BRINTEL) also operate two Sikorsky S61N helicopters, based at RAF Mount
Pleasant, under contract to the United Kingdom Ministry Of Defence,
primarily for moving military personnel, equipment and supplies around the
islands.

The British Antarctic Survey operates a transcontinental air link between
the Falkland Islands and the Rothera Research Station on the Antarctic
Peninsula and servicing also other British bases in the British Antarctic
Territory using a de Havilland Canada Dash 7.

The smaller Port Stanley Airport, outside the city, is used for internal
flights. The Falkland Islands Government Air Service (FIGAS) operates
Islander aircraft that can use the grass airstrips that most settlements
have. Flight schedules are decided a day in advance according to passenger
needs. The night before, the arrival and departure times are announced on
the radio.

The road network has been improved in recent years. However, not many paved
roads exist outside Stanley and RAF Mount Pleasant.

Landmines and ordnance

Depending on the source, between 18,000 and 25,000 land mines remain from
the 1982 war. One source says that Argentina placed 18,000 landmines, The
British Government stated that all but one of their anti-personnel mine were
accounted for. The land mines are located in either 101 or 117 mine fields,
that are dispersed over an area of 8 sq mi (12 km2) in the areas of Port
Stanley, Port Howard, Fox Bay and Goose Green (these areas are now well
marked). Information is available from the EOD (Explosive Ordnance Disposal)
Operation Centre in Stanley.

Care should still be taken as some beaches were mined, and there have been
concerns the tides could have moved some mines. The same applies where mine
fields are close to rivers. Care should be taken in case mines have been
washed out of the marked area by flooding. There is also ordnance left over
from the war. Between 1997 and 2002, 248 antipersonnel mines were destroyed
in the Falklands, 16 were destroyed in 2003, one in 2005 and six
antipersonnel mines were destroyed in 2006.

In February 2005, the charity Landmine Action proposed a Kyoto-style credit
scheme, which would see a commitment by the British government to clear an
equivalent area of mined land to that currently existing in the Falklands in
more seriously mine-affected countries by March 2009. This proposal was
supported by Falkland Islanders, for whom landmines do not pose a serious
threat in everyday life. The British government has yet to declare its
support or opposition to the idea.

In November 2008, Landmine Action opposed Britain's request for a ten year
extension on the deadline for clearing the landmines. It accused the British
Government of not demonstrating "any evidence of serious plans to complete,
or even begin, this work" and stated "Allowing a well-resourced, technically
capable State such as the United Kingdom to effectively ignore its
responsibilities would set a dangerous and ethically unacceptable precedent.
However, in 2008, the UK Government argued that in stark contrast to
minefields elsewhere, "There have never been any civilian injuries in almost
26 years" in the Falklands.

On 30 November 2009 the Falkland Islands Government announced that mine
clearance was due to begin at Surf Bay on 2 December 2009, and further
clearances were to take place at Sapper Hill, Goose Green and Fox Bay. The
British company BATEC International was chosen to carry out the project.

Military

There is a British military garrison stationed on the Falkland Islands, but
the islands also have their own Falkland Islands Defence Force. This company
sized force is completely funded by the Falklands government. It uses
vehicles such as: quad bikes, inflatable boats and Land Rovers to traverse
the islands terrain. The Falkland Islands Defence Force uses the Steyr AUG
as its main assault rifle.

A front page report in RAF News that Prince William of Wales would serve a 3-month tour of duty in the Falkland Islands, following completion of his 18-month training with the RAF Search and Rescue Force drew a critical response from the Argentine government in January 2009. However, the Ministry of Defence denied that any decision on the Prince's deployment had been raised.